D. V. Sichinava, 2011

Adverb (Church Slavonic tracing paper from Greek ἐπίρρημα, in fact, “what is with the verb or on the verb”; Latin adverbium is also a tracing paper of this term) - in Russian, a part of speech denoting a sign of a certain situation or other sign, in particular, degree of sign or external characteristic of the situation. Inflection is not typical for an adverb: some adverbs have degrees of comparison. Most adverbs are formed from words (and phrases) of other parts of speech. In a sentence, adverbs usually take the syntactic position of the circumstance:

(1) The wind lifted dry snow from the ground and carried it towards us smooth, continuously, stubbornly… [V. G. Korolenko. Frost (1900-1901)]

1. Adverb: general information

Unlike other significant parts of speech (see Parts of speech), from a morphological point of view, adverbs in the Russian language are poorly characterized (sometimes this property is included in the definition, see), namely:

• their inflection is extremely limited;
• word formation is characterized by conversion (the transition of words or phrases into the category of adverbs without formal change, see Word formation): continuously(cf. adjective) > continuously,at night(tv.p.  noun) > at night,in place > together.

This increases the degree of homonymy of adverbs with words of other parts of speech (for example, in the Corpus, even taking into account the orthographic distinction between prepositional groups such as together and adverbs like together, there are about as many word forms that are homonymous with adverbs as there are adverbs themselves) and makes it difficult to distinguish them.

Typologically, the Russian language is not unique in this regard. In a number of languages ​​of the world, adverbs are considered not an independent part of speech, but a class of adjective uses (German) or a special “adverbial form of adjectives” (Japanese).

From a semantic-syntactic point of view, adverbs act as a circumstance with a verb, adjective or other adverb, or, less often, as a definition with a noun ( way home,food on an empty stomach) and mean, first of all, a sign, and in particular “a sign of a sign” ( very quickly, indecent often; A. M. Peshkovsky considered the main feature of the semantics of adverbs to be precisely the “sign of a sign”). In the absence of inflection marking the syntactic connection (the so-called "adjacency"), the syntax and semantics of adverbs are closely intertwined.

Adverbs differ in their syntactic scope (the syntactic units to which they refer). In particular, they can syntactically refer to the predicative group (clause) as a whole (designation of "external" characteristics, assessment of the situation as a whole: the doctor came yesterday). Another possibility is that the adverb belongs to the verb group and indicates an “internal” characteristic, a parameter of the situation: go fast[Filipenko 2003], to the adjective ( indecently outspoken), to a noun ( way home), cm. . A number of thematic categories of adverbs are distinguished (adverbs of place, direction, time, purpose, etc. , see). There is a subclass of pronominal adverbs, the semantics of which are characterized by a reference to the speech situation (see Pronoun): So,where,when,how much etc. Adverbs differ from other parts of speech in a very high percentage of pronominal word usage (on average, a third, for oral speech up to 40%, see) and lexemes (especially in some semantic classes); for the reasons for this, see .

2. Definition

In the European linguistic tradition, starting from the ancient Greek, adverbs were distinguished by the morphological feature of immutability, differing from names by a negative feature (the German school formulation “what cannot be declined is considered as an adverb”:

Was man nicht deklinieren kann,

Das sieht man als Adverbium an [Isachenko 1965: 272]).

The terms themselves ἐπίρρημα and adverbium, however, of syntactic content and indicate the function of the verb modifier.

In Russian studies, only significant lexemes are classified as adverbs. By definition, N.N. Durnovo [Durnovo 1929: 12], “adverbs are usually full-meaning words (not partial and not interjections) that do not belong to the classes of nouns, verbs and adjectives”. Similar "negative" formulations are found in S. O. Kartsevsky and A. V. Isachenko, then inflexibility is accepted as a defining feature in V. V. Vinogradov [Grammatika 1953: 606].

In a number of interpretations, additional syntactic criteria are also added to this definition. They are applied both to the establishment of an unambiguous characteristic of words (for example, yesterday- always an adverb With- always a preposition), and to the distinction between homonyms ( smooth- adverb, particle fun adjective, adverb, predicate). Various works mention the following syntactic criteria for belonging to adverbs.

a) Sentence member criterion

Academic grammarians contrast adverbs (which should be members of a sentence) with introductory words that coincide with them, which are not considered members of a sentence: Gave three balls annually and squandered finally(adverb, = ‘in the end’) – Finally, it is not true(introductory word). Accordingly, according to this criterion, invariable service words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles), introductory words and interjections are separated from adverbs.

(2) Okay. Will your way. Just get well. [B. Yekimov. Pinochet (1999)] – adverb

(3) Where should I be? Where can I work your way? At school? [WITH. Dovlatov. Grapes (1990)] - introductory word

b) Criteria for the syntactic position of the circumstance

From the composition of adverbs, starting from the works of L.V. Shcherba, predicatives (“category of state”) are also distinguished - unchangeable words, which are characterized by the position of the predicate in combination with a copula ( me you(It was/will)it's a pity,No smoking,to be married again), including the forms used in impersonal sentences on - O/-e, homonymous adverbs-circumstances ( hard(It was/will)make up your mind), thereby limiting the class of adverbs proper to those lexemes, which are characterized, first of all, by the syntactic position of the circumstance. By the same criterion, invariable adjectives ( khaki,beige,Bordeaux) and pronouns ( his,her,their) do not apply to adverbs.

In this article (and in the morphological markup of the Corpus), following the Grammar Dictionary of A. A. Zaliznyak [Zaliznyak 1977], the boundaries of the class of adverbs are used, given by the above definition, taking into account both syntactic criteria (thus, the introductory word and the predicate are recognized as separate parts of speech and are not covered in this article, see the special articles Predicative and Introductory Constructions).

(4) Guests fun they walked, rode horses around the village, glorifying the bride and her parents. ["Folk Art" (2004)] - adverb

(5) But now she was fun, there was a real drink ahead, an appetizer and dessert - a cake with roses. [V. Tokarev. Own truth (2002)] - predicative

(6) Her heart was fun and pure, it forgot Sergei, it beat with a new love. [V. K. Ketlinskaya. Courage (1934-1938)] - adjective

3. Morphology

From a morphological point of view, adverbs are poorly characterized. The belonging of many words to the class of adverbs is ambiguously established; adverbs are characterized by a high degree of homonymy with other parts of speech. The most numerous and productive class of adverbs is -O/-e- consistently homonymous with word forms of another part of speech, namely, forms of short adjectives of the middle gender (from which these adverbs are formed). The form of the comparative degree - the only inflectional form of the Russian dialect - is available only for adverbs in -O/-e and also coincides with the form of the comparative degree of the adjective. With adverbs for -O/-e the productive class of Russian predicatives formally coincides on - O/-e, both positively and comparatively ( Lying is bad,more fun to ride). The rest of the adverbs are invariable ( So,in vain,in German,blindly) and formally cannot be separated from the invariable service parts of speech; many, in addition, coincide with the word forms of the inflected ( sitting,spring) or immutable (particle more, union smooth) lexemes of other parts of speech (on the distinction between adverbs and other parts of speech, see).

A similar situation is associated with the word formation of adverbs by conversion (see Word formation / XXX) (changes in part of speech) or univerbation (see Word formation / XXX) (merging into a single word): fun(cf. adjective) > fun,step(tv.p.  noun) > step,by then > then.

3.1. inflection

Adverbs for - O/-e, formed from qualitative adjectives (see Adjective), have only one inflectional category - the degree of comparison (see Comparative degree), and only two grammes - positive ( quickly) and comparative degree ( faster). Adverbs formed from quality adjectives, in the sense of measure and degree (see) ( incredibly rich) do not form a comparative degree.

The comparative degree of adverbs is formed from adverbs in -O/-e with the help of suffixes her, -her or -e with alternation of the previous consonant (for the last cf. shorter, above, thinner), there is also a form of the comparative degree with the prefix on- (prettier,taller). The comparative degree of adverbs is regularly homonymous with the comparative degree of the corresponding adjectives (as well as predicatives, if they are considered an independent part of speech) and is sometimes distinguished into a special multifunctional part of speech - the comparative (as in [Grammar 1980]).

(7) At the same time, he was critical of his work, more critical than other scientists… [D. Granin. Bison (1987)] – adverb

(8) He does everything as good as he can; he still makes a little noise: it was not for nothing that he was once a lion; but life is hard... harder than he himself suspects... [I. C. Turgenev. Fathers and Sons (1862)] - predicative

On the morphology and variability of the comparative ( more,someone else's,wider etc. ) see Comparative degree.

Adjective forms in -most(also - shi, cf. higher), sometimes interpreted as forms of inflectional superlatives, sometimes as independent lexemes (see Superlatives), correspond to adverbs in -yshe: most beautifully(cf. most beautiful). There are also superlative forms with magnifying prefixes. pre-, most-:

(9) And although now Bashutsky saw Sytov, so to speak, with an inner eye, kneecaps most unpleasant whined. [YU. Davydov. Blue Tulips (1988-1989)]

Analytical comparative and superlative degrees can also be distinguished, formed with the help of adverbs more and most respectively, similarly to the corresponding analytic forms of adjectives:

(10) I agree at least that a different language makes it possible to adopt a foreign culture deeper. [LiveJournal entry with commentary (2004)]

(11) During a night's sleep, the skin most active is being restored. ["Dasha" (2004)]

From some relative adjectives - verbal,printed,evolutionary,legislative etc. - adverbs are formed on -O/-e: verbally,printed,evolutionarily,by law(thus, in this respect - but not in the semantic - they are rethought as qualitative). These adverbs are not homonymous with adjective forms and do not have degrees of comparison:

(12) Shares may only be sold at public auction, the rules of which also require by law fasten. ["Newspaper" (2003)]

(13) - I advise her: refuse printed from your work! [AND. Grekov. No Smiles (1975)]

3.2. word formation

The participation of adverbs in word formation is asymmetrical: on the one hand, adverbs very rarely motivate full-valued parts of speech formed in a suffixal way (see Word formation) (there are few adverbial formations such as why, yesterday's) [Grammar 1980: 219], [Evtyukhin 2008: 543]. Some prepositions are formed from adverbs that have changed their syntactic status by conversion (see Word formation) ( near, near), particles ( more in contexts when will he come), introductory words ( to my mind,shorter), high-frequency numerals ( not)lot, (not)few, but in general the role of adverbs as a source of word formation is insignificant.

3.2.3.4. Formations from other nominal forms

This closed class includes ancient denominative dialects ( Houses,home- from House,Down with,down - from dol).

3.2.3.5. Formations from numerals with multiplicity value

3.2.3.6. Formations from gerunds

3.2.3.7. Formations with the suffix - me

Such formations are a rare case of not conversion, but affixation (moreover, with the help of a suffix, which is unique to adverbs). This model is extremely limited in use, mainly (though not only) as part of obsolete figurae etymologicae of a phraseological nature: stand upright,swarm swarm,revmya roar,lying down(cf. the ironic coloration of the Cassil example below). This also includes the synchronously unmotivated adverb flat, Old Russian formation from an adjective flat. Similar suffix in very- historically from the whole.

(22) Who stand up stood, that sitting sat down Who sitting sitting, that lying down lay down Well, who lying down lying there, there was nothing left to do. [L. A. Kassil. Konduit and Shvambrania (1928-1931)]

3.2.3.8. Suffixal and prefixal derivatives of adverbs

In the formation of pronominal adverbs (see) affixes are involved -then,-or,someday, prefixes something,neither-,not-, characteristic of the entire system of Russian pronouns (for more details, see the article Pronoun). Prefixes are also attached to the adverbial base from-, before- with extreme semantics: from here,as long as(These prefixes also appear in the formation of adverbs from prepositional groups: age,until late). From non-pronominal adverbs are also formed day after tomorrow and day before yesterday(in the latter case - with a double prefix / preposition).

4. Syntax

From a syntactic point of view, the adverb is primarily characterized by the function of circumstance (see). Some spatial, temporal and quantitative adverbs (traditionally not classified as predicatives) can act as part of a predicate (in the position of a rheme they carry new information):

(23) - What kind of mourning, - I ask, - where is the dead man? - In the Kuibyshev morgue, - Sidorovsky answers, - the funeral tomorrow. [WITH. Dovlatov. Suitcase (1986)]

(24) The golden age of the imperialists behind; ahead– The Copper Age of the Prophets and the Iron Age of the Barbarians, but man is able to survive on his own and shape the future of others at all times. ["Knowledge is Power" (2003)]

(25) I'm sitting in "from one to three", but also here occasionally I look in. [Our Children: Teenagers (2004)] - theme

(26) Now his Hero looked into the institute rarely. [M. Chulaki. Primus (2002)] - rhema

Being an invariable (except for the degree of comparison) part of speech, the adverb is not controlled by words on which it depends syntactically; in Russian studies, this type of connection is traditionally called adjunction [Grammatika 1980(2): 21]. Some adverbs govern inflected parts of speech, so the adverb of purpose out of spite has actant - Object of negative influence, which is controlled in the dative case:

(27) In spite of the future cold he sat down on the sled and decided that he would feast: he chewed an iced slice of bread and drank ice-cold water from a can. [O. Pavlov. Karaganda Deviatiny, or The Tale of the Last Days (2001)]

When a verb is replaced by a verbal noun, adverbs with related adjectives are transformed into adjectives, and the rest of the adverbs receive a defining function: beautiful singing - beautiful singing,to go tomorrow - tomorrow's trip;move backward - move backward. Possible variations of these models: summer vacation - summer vacation. See nominalization for details.

From this point of view, the role of adverbs is analogous to that of negations (see negation), which can also be general (with a scope equal to the entire clause: Did not shoot the unfortunate in dungeons) and private ( Not,I don't love you so passionately).

5.2. Variable and constant scope

The scope of a number of adverbs (for example, prudently,flippantly) can be variable (“floating”) and refer both to individual elements of the situation and to the situation as a whole.

For some adverbs, the scope is predetermined by the semantics of the predicate, for example, the adverb quiet is combined only with predicates describing a situation that can be accompanied by a sound, and an adverb at night - a situation localized in time [Filipenko 2003].

5.3. Semantic classes

The following semantic classes of adverbs will be analyzed below:

In the school tradition, adverbs are divided into attributive and circumstantial. Definitive adverbs include qualitative (characterization or evaluation of the action and feature: sad,fearfully,quickly,right), quantitative ( lot,few,triple,six of us), image and mode of action ( step,mixed up,idle,for sure). Adverbs of place, time, cause, and purpose are adverbs of adverbs.

5.3.1. Adverbs of manner and mode of action

Adverbs of method and manner of action indicate the nature of the course of the situation; prototypical pronominal adverb how(in school grammar, the “question” to which these adverbs “answer”). This class includes adverbs -O/-e from quality adjectives. This is the largest category of adverbs - about 5.5. thousand out of those recorded in [Evtyukhin 2008: 559] 6 thousand lexemes.

This class is heterogeneous [Filipenko 2003: 30], it includes:

• adverbs of emotion ( fun);
• parametric adverbs indicating a quantifiable feature ( slowly);
• external evaluation adverbs ( Okay,not fair);
• so-called comparative-similar, indicating similarity with a situation typical for a certain class of objects ( humanly);
• adverbs of quantitative characteristics of the participants in the situation - singularity and distributiveness ( together, together,apart etc. ), among which adverbs formed from collective numbers ( threesome,five of us); see also Numerals.

For adverbs of this class, the adverbial function is primary; as a secondary, the definition function is common with verbal nouns and in some special cases (see).

5.3.2. Adverbs of measure and degree

Adverbs of measure and degree characterize the intensity of the manifestation of a feature, in the prototypical case indicated by an adjective or other adverb: very talented,very frankly,too hasty,too detailed. A class of adverbs of multiplicity, formed from collective numerals, is distinguished: twice,triple,hundredfold(s); see also Numerals.

Adverbs of measure and degree are also combined with verbs containing a measured (graded) component in semantics: in a hurry(=‘acted quickly’), loved very much(='felt a strong feeling'), but *very walking;lightly touched(=‘has made incomplete contact’), but *sitting slightly.

Metaphorically, in the function of adverbs of measure and degree (as synonyms for the prototypical very) adverbs of mode of action are widely used: exceptionally rare, deeply educated, dead drunk, negligible, ridiculously sparse etc. The expressive synonymy of intensifiers is a typological universal.

(31) And people often cheat him, using Kirsan's strange manner to spend every penny he gets, and steal in his environment just in black! [A. Tarasov. Millionaire (2004)]

The compatibility of adverbs of measure and degree with different degrees of comparison is not the same. Some adverbs of measure and degree are used only with adverbs and adjectives of a positive degree: very,fearfully,exclusively; others - only with comparatives, and their semantics includes the corresponding element: much,much; the third - both with those and with others: slightly,Little,strongly.

Let us especially note the compatibility of adverbs of measure and degree with a comparative degree on on-. In the modern language, such comparatives modify only adverbs of the third type: much better, slightly stronger.

(32) Young woman separately and those two people much older- he is an economist, she is a historian, both with great experience. [L. Petrushevskaya. Find Me Dream (1998-1999)]

In the 19th century, adverbs of the second (“only comparative”) type also appeared in this position: much more, twice as high:

(33) Pelageya, give me a glass of punch, yes much stronger. [A. I. Herzen. Who's guilty? (1841-1846)]

(34) He will have his own steamboat, "Handsman", twice as clean Yes, and more of this dish. [P. D. Boborykin. Vasily Terkin (1892)]

5.3.3. Adverbs of cause and purpose

Adverbs of cause and purpose include adverbs that express conditionality; prototypical pronominal adverbs why and why. Usually why interpreted as an adverb of reason, and why- as an adverb of purpose; nevertheless, in certain contexts they are interchangeable, and in general, such formations in the Slavic languages ​​are semantically unstable (cf. Polish. dlaczego'why and po co'why'):

(35) But then why to replace the Russian word "information" with a foreign one - "information"? Since the recipients of messages can be not only people, but also technical devices, the question is, can the latter perceive the information contained in the messages? And if not, then why? [Information Technology (2004)]

Etymologically, they go back, as a rule, to prepositional case combinations (see), where the preposition (which has become a prefix) means the direction of a causal relationship ( With- the reason on the- goal), and the nominal root - the reason, cf. drunk,s-simple,on-evil,for show etc. These fused phraseological units are characterized by disapproving (pejorative) semantics (cf., however, for the future); in the language they are not numerous (moreover, there are more pronouns than significant ones), and in texts significant adverbs of cause and purpose are of low frequency. Conditionality (consequence, concession, etc. ) is much more often expressed by detailed circumstantial turns.

5.3.4. Adverbs of place and direction

Adverbs of place mean the static location of an object within a landmark: above,Houses,everywhere; prototypical pronominal adverb where.

Adverbs of direction, unlike adverbs of place, mean the dynamic movement of an object towards or away from a landmark: home,back,here,away,from afar,from here; prototypical pronominal adverbs where,where.

Adverbs of the spatial limit are of little use and are represented by archaic or colloquial words: hitherto,as long as,how long(they also have a temporary interpretation).

Russian spatial adverbs are characterized by the adverb of several series, conveying different types and shades of spatial orientation, and the semantics is largely lexicalized and is not always derived from the meaning of the prefix and root: up – up – up(within the top of smth.) above(on smth., outside the top of the landmark, "where"; ablative meaning, "from where") - upstairs – over(on "overlapping", cf. over the barriers),forward(direction to target) - anteriorly(general direction) - ahead(about location) - front(static position).

Adverbs anteriorly, posteriorly are special terms of anatomy and biology and are fixed in the Corpus starting from the works of I.M. Sechenov (1863):

(36) Curvature in the cervical and lumbar spine indicate lordosis (bending anteriorly), in the thoracic region - about kyphosis (backward bending). [L. Pirogov. Back pain: what is it and how to deal with it? (2003)]

5.3.5. Adverbs of time

The adverbs of this group mean the localization of the situation in time. The corresponding pronominal adverb is when. This group includes, in particular, adverbs now,now,before,late,early, (after)tomorrow,today, adverbs of term ( instantly,straightaway), due date ( for a long time). Among the adverbs of time, as well as among the adverbs of place, adverbs of the original limit stand out (answering the question since when? – long time ago,childhood) and final limit ( How long? – before dark,still). These two subtypes are somewhat archaic and are replaced in modern speech by phrases ( still- however, the assignment of this stable phraseological unit, written separately, to adverbs is also quite possible; from a long time ago,since childhood). Even more archaic are the corresponding pronominal adverbs - polysemantic how long,breakaway(having also spatial semantics, see).

Adverbs of measure of duration are distinguished ( for a long time,Little) and multiplicity ( often,rarely,repeatedly, including adverbs from adjectives into hedgehog-, on- – daily,per month, from numerals to -wait – twice,thrice,many times). Adverbs of measure of duration and multiplicity are semantically close to adverbs of measure and degree (see).

5.3.6. Pronominal adverbs

From a semantic point of view, a significant subclass of adverbs has the properties of auxiliary vocabulary [Filipenko 2003: 6–7] - these are the so-called pronominal adverbs, the semantics of which contain an indication of the current situation (deixis), an indefinite component or a quantifier meaning (see Pronoun). In many interpretations, pronominal adverbs are not distinguished into a special part of speech. The present grammar takes a dual approach to them: they are treated both in the section of pronouns and in the section of adverbs.

Adverbs, especially purpose and reason (see), as well as time (see), place and direction (see), are characterized by a large proportion of pronominal adverbs ( for some reason,for some reason, zd es,now), both in terms of the number of lexemes and frequency. This is due to the fact that free phrases have a much wider space of possibilities for expressing circumstances than single-word phraseologized adverbs that do not accept new dependent words (cf. Houses – at work,visiting friends,outside,on Tverskaya street;yesterday - last friday,before leaving etc. ) [Evtyukhin 2008: 567].

From a morphological and semantic point of view, adverbs are combined into several rows associated with a common system of pronouns - nouns, adjectives and numerals (see Pronoun); pronouns with quantitative semantics ( how,so many,so much etc.) are not included in the table:

Table 1. Series of pronominal adverbs

6. Statistics

Below is a separate statistics on non-pronominal and pronominal adverbs in texts with and without removal of homonymy. Then, statistics are given on the semantic classes of adverbs distinguished in the semantic markup of the Corpus, as well as on the word-formation type (nominal, verbal, adjective).

Table 2. Synchronous statistics of adverbs

A high degree of homonymy, characteristic of adverbs, determines a significant difference in the frequency of this part of speech in the Corpus with removed and not removed homonymy. In the Corpus with unresolved homonymy, this frequency is almost twice as high - 7.67% - than in the Corpus with removed homonymy (4.18%). These data were obtained on the material of written texts (the spelling norm differs together and together, in a simple way and in a simple way); without taking into account spelling, homonymy in sounding speech should be even much higher. Thus, all further calculations in the Corpus, taking into account the unresolved homonymy, actually also cover predicatives, and short forms of adjectives and participles in -O/-e, and particles and conjunctions with which pronominal adverbs are homonymous. At the same time, the ratio of pronominal and non-pronominal adverbs in the Corpus with removed homonymy compared to the Corpus with removed homonymy is practically the same, however, there are significant differences in the semantic and derivational classes of adverbs. Thus, the relative frequencies of most basic semantic classes are higher (sometimes by several times, as for adverbs of direction and time). For the basic unmarked class - adverbs of the mode of action not included in the semantic markup of the Corpus - homonymy is more characteristic, since its bulk is made up of adverbs in - O/-e. In the transition to the removed homonymy, only adverbs of quantity significantly decrease their frequency from other classes - this is due to the fact that for words few,lot,how more characteristic function of the numeral ( get little money) or predicative ( not enough money) than adverbs ( little work).

On the whole, the data of the Subcorpus with homonymy removed give the following picture. Adverbs are the lowest-frequency significant part of speech. The percentage of pronominal adverbs in relation to full-valued adverbs is exceptionally high (a third, which is much higher than the percentage for other parts of speech - see Pronouns). The most frequent semantic classes, apart from the unmarked class of adverbs of mode of action, are adverbs of time, evaluation, degree, place, and direction. More than half of the adverbial usages are motivated by adjectives, the other two full-valued parts of speech (noun and verb) undergo adverbialization much worse (it should be noted that adverbs from nouns of the type spring are absent in the marking of the Corpus and the corresponding forms are recognized as substantive).

Further comparisons are given with the same value of the "removed homonymy" parameter.

Table 3. Adverbs in the Newspaper and Oral Corpuses

Both in the Newspaper Corpus and in the Oral Corpus only texts with unresolved homonymy are presented. According to these data, it can be seen that adverbs are slightly less frequent in journalistic speech than in the Main Corpus as a whole, and their pronominal status is less typical. From a semantic point of view, the adverbs of time and quantity, which are fundamental for reporting news information, are superior to the average; the remaining semantic classes are slightly less frequent than in the main corpus as a whole. Completely different data is provided by the Oral Corpus, demonstrating a statistically significant sharp difference between oral and written speech. Adverbs in general are almost twice as common as in the Newspaper Corpus, and among them the share of pronominal adverbs is 10% higher, which reflects the role of deixis in oral speech. With the growth of pronominal adverbs, the percentage of all three classes of derived adverbs in general decreases accordingly. Differences in semantic classes are also interesting: more than twice as common as adverbs of place ( here,there,where), used for spatial reference in oral discourse, adverbs of degree, quantity and distance are much less frequent; quantification of phenomena plays a significantly greater role in written speech.

Table 4. Diachronic statistics of adverbs

The diachronic table (calculation with the inclusion of texts with removed homonymy, but most with unremoved ones) shows that there have been no significant changes in the statistical indicators of Russian dialects for 300 years. Most of the observed differences are within 1%, that is, they are not statistically significant. Other changes also go beyond this threshold only to a small extent. In the 20th century, the percentage of adjective adverbs increased slightly - the productivity of the class of adverbs increased by -O/-e(see also above, in, about the decline within this class of the productivity of adverbs from relative adjectives, characteristic of the 18th century). The frequency of pronominal adverbs has decreased. From a semantic point of view, one can note an increase in the frequency of evaluation adverbs.

Bibliography

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• Bartsch R. The Grammar of Adverbials. Amsterdam. 1976.
• Cinque G. Adverbs and functional heads – a cross-linguistic perspective. Oxford. 1999.

Adverbs of place tell us where something happened. Usually such adverbs are placed after the main verb, or at the end of the sentence. Adverbs of place do not belong to adjectives or other adverbs.

Here and There

Here and there these are typical adverbs of the place. They tell us the location. With verbs of motion here means "in the direction of or next to the speaker" and there means "far away, or not near the speaker".

Here and there combined with prepositions and form many common adverbial phrases.

Here and there are placed at the beginning of a sentence for exclamation, or when it is necessary to emphasize. They are followed by a verb if the subject (subject of the sentence) is a noun, and a pronoun if the subject is a pronoun.

Adverbs of place that are prepositions

Many adverbs of place can be used as prepositions. In this case, they must be followed by a noun.

Adverbs of place ending in -where

Adverbs of place that end in -where express the idea of ​​a location without specifying a specific place or direction.

Adverbs of place ending in -wards

Adverbs of place that end in -wards denote movement in a particular direction.

Examples

• Cats don't usually walk backwards.
• The ship sailed westwards.
• The balloon drifted upwards.
• We will keep walking homewards until we arrive.

Be careful: Towards is a preposition, not an adverb, so it is always followed by a noun or pronoun.

Examples

• He walked towards the car.
• She ran towards me.

Adverbs of place denoting both movement and location

Some adverbs of place can mean movement and location at the same time.

Examples

• The child went indoors.
• He lived and worked abroad.
• Water always flows downhill.
• The wind pushed us sideways.

The place of an adverb in a sentence in English is in many cases not fixed. The same adverb can be used at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. We will consider the main patterns of location in a sentence, the features of the use of individual adverbs.

Three positions of the adverb: before the verb, at the beginning and at the end of the sentence

As a rule, an adverb occupies one of three positions in a sentence.

• At the end of a sentence

Yesterday we had a good time. - We had a good time yesterday.

• In the middle of a sentence

If the predicate consists of one verb, then “in the middle” is before the verb.

He rarely talks to his neighbours. - He rarely talking to neighbors.

If there is more than one word in the predicate, then “in the middle” is after or.

You can never rely on him. - You never you can't rely on him.

He is always late. - He always late.

Some adverbs may appear before an auxiliary or modal verb.

He really is the person we were looking for. - He really and there is the person we were looking for.

He surely can drive. - He definitely knows how to drive a car.

The “middle” is between the subject and the main verb.

Do you often help people? - You often help people?

Consider in what cases the adverb is at the end of the sentence, at the beginning and in the middle.

Place of adverbs of mode of action

Adverbs of manner, such as slowly- slowly, fast, quickly- quickly, immediately- immediately, well- well, they are at the end of the sentence.

You have done your work well.- you did the job well.

Hold the box carefully.- Hold the box carefully.

Come back immediately.- Come back immediately.

Cats can sneak very slowly.– Cats are very good at sneaking slowly.

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of place such as here- here, there- there, are also at the end of the sentence.

We will build a church here.- We will build here church.

His office is there.– His office there.

Place of adverbs of time in a sentence

At the end of the sentence, adverbs are used that indicate a specific time: now- now, now, tomorrow- tomorrow, yesterday- yesterday, etc. Do not confuse them with adverbs such as often- often, rarely- rarely, always- always, never- never, indicating the frequency of action - they are also called adverbs of frequency (adverbs of frequency).

Don't forget to return the books tomorrow. Don't forget to return the books tomorrow.

You will be safe now. – Now you will be safe.

The same adverbs, especially if you need to focus on them, are quite often used at the beginning of a sentence:

Tomorrow we will put an end to it. - Tomorrow we will put an end to this.

Now you will tell me the truth. - Now you tell me the truth.

Place of adverbs of frequency (always, never, etc.)

Adverbs of frequency are a type of adverbs of time that indicate how often an action occurs: often- often, sometimes- sometimes, always, ever- always, never- never, rarely- rarely, usually- usually. They are located in the middle of the sentence.

I usually take a bus to work. I usually go to work by bus.

You can always use my tools. You can always use my tools.

Usually sometimes found at the beginning of a sentence.

usually, we have lunch together. We usually have lunch together.

Note that if the adverb of frequency indicates not an indefinite frequency (always, rarely), but a specific one (every day, on Sundays), it is usually used at the end of a sentence:

We go to the swimming pool on Sundays. - We go to the pool on Sundays.

He reads in English every day.– He reads in English everyday.

Place of adverbs of measure and degree

Adverbs of measure and degree include words such as: really- really, really very- very, extreme- extremely quite- enough, just- just, just almost- nearly. They are in the middle of a sentence.

Adverbs of measure and degree can be used with or before another adverb.

• Adverb before adjective:

The noise was too loud. - Noise was too much loud.

It was extreme dangerous . - It was extremely dangerously.

• Adverb before another adverb:

He was swimming unbelievably long. - He swam incredible for a long time.

You sneaked up on me very quietly. - You crept up on me very quiet.

They can also characterize the actions and states expressed by the verb. Let me remind you that if there is one verb in the sentence, then “in the middle of the sentence” is before this verb.

I really like how you sing. - To me really love the way you sing.

He almost finished my portrait. - He nearly finished my portrait.

If there is an auxiliary or modal verb, then “in the middle of a sentence” is after the modal or auxiliary verb.

We were just talking about you. - We just were talking about you.

You can really do better. - You really you can do better.

Some amplifying adverbs, such as really- really, surely, certainly- exactly, of course, definitely– definitely can be placed before an auxiliary or modal verb.

You really can do better. - You really can you do better

He definetely is the best candidate. - He definitely the best candidate.

Exceptions - adverb enough(enough), it comes after the word being defined.

The noise was loud enough.- Noise was enough loud.

He was swimming long enough.- He swam enough for a long time.

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Today we will look at the adverb in English:

Adverb (Adverb ) is a part of speech that speaks of a sign or image of an ongoing action

This is essentially the semantic coloring of any language, its life-giving force.

Adverbs education scheme is diverse:

1. For most adjectives, just add the suffix - ly :
   • slowly - slowly
   • dearly - expensive
   • beautifully - wonderful
   • lightly - light, etc.
2. Some nouns (mostly of the tense period) with − ly form an adverb of periodic action:
   • day - day
   • daily - daily

Features of shaping

Pay attention to such subtleties.

If an adverb is indistinguishable in form from an adjective, then it is possible to determine which part of speech we have in front of us by meaning:

• A long way across the desert is laying before us. — A long journey through the desert lay before us.
• scientists have long collected information about the ancient Incas. — Scientists have long collected information about the ancient Incas.

In the first sentence long- adjective, in the second - adverb

Division of adverbs into types according to their structure

There are four types:
1. Simple - not divisible into parts:
   • above - above
   • hear - here
   • bad - bad
   • far - far
   • now - now
2. Derivatives - formed by adding suffixes and prefixes:
   • warmly - warmly
   • indeed - indeed
   • downward - down, down (- ward- direction suffix)
   • upstairs - up, at the top (- up- approximation prefix)
3. Complex - multi-rooted:
   • sometimes - sometimes
   • anywhere - everywhere
   • somewhen - someday
4. Compounds - consisting of two or more words:
   • as long as - until, until then
   • at last - finally, finally
   • too much - too, too much

Types of adverbs according to their semantic purpose

Consider the types adverbs and examples in the table

Place of adverbs in a sentence

1. Adverbs of place answer questions - where, where and are usually placed at the end of the sentence, but if there are other adverbs in a proposal, the priority is distributed as follows:
   • first - the mode of action
   • then places
   • then - time

   The affirmative form is usually used — somewhere
   in the interrogative -anywhere

2. Adverbs of time answer the question -when and can stand:
   • At the beginning of a sentence:
     • when - when
     • whenever - when
     • then - then, etc.
   • Both at the beginning and at the end of a sentence if they are defined in time:-
     • today - today
     • yesterday - yesterday, etc.
   • Basically, at the end of a sentence, if the time is general
     • again - again
     • lately - lately
     • before - before
     • yet - already, still

     If - yet translates as more , then it is usually used in both interrogative and negative sentences.
     If -yet =already , then in this sense the adverb is applicable only in interrogative sentences

   • Preceding verbs are usually adverbs indicating the frequency of an action or feature.
     • always - always
     • usually - usually
     • sometimes - sometimes
     • never - never
   • In the presence of an auxiliary (modal) verb, for example, -to be, -shall/will, -can etc., the adverb is placed between it and the main verb -
     as in example 4 (table)
     Never in a negative sentence is used without not , since it is itself the negation
3. Adverbs of mode of action answer questions − how, in what way . Can stand:
   • after the verb - if the sentence is simple
   • before the verb or after the object - if the sentence has an object

   But it is never placed between a verb and an object.
   So, sentence 2 from the table can be redone like this:

   • We immediately began the work
4. Adverbs of measure answer questions − how much (how much) and usually stand before the word to which it refers.
   but enough put mostly after. It is also necessary to use correctly - much, -lot, -little :
   • much- in interrogative and negative sentences
   • lot- in affirmative

   How much do you earn? — How much do you earn?
   This work made with a lot of mistakes. — This work is done with a lot of mistakes.

   In affirmative - much , like -little , used in conjunction with:

   • too - too
   • very - very, etc.

Degrees of comparison of adverbs

There are three ways to form comparative and superlative degrees of comparison. adverbs:

1. By adding suffixes -er and -est respectively to monosyllabic adverbs
2. With the help of words more and - most if adverbs have a suffix -ly
   An exception- early: degrees of comparison in it are formed according to the first rule
3. Degrees are not formed according to the rules

degrees of comparison of adverbs Adverbs formed not according to the rules should be learned
Video.