| In the period from the 9th century to the 16th century. Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)

Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)

The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void, which sooner or later someone had to fill. The new masters of the steppes from the second half of the 11th century were the Polovtsians. Since that time, the titanic Russian-Polovtsian struggle unfolded, which was fought on the widest front from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in scale, it stretched over a century and a half and had a significant impact on the fate of the Old Russian state.

Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsians did not set the task of capturing Russian territories, but limited themselves to plunder and withdrawal to the full. And the ratio of the population Ancient Rus and the steppe nomads were far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, about 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while the Polovtsians numbered several hundred thousand.

The Russians had to fight the Polovtsy already in the new historical conditions of the collapse of a single state. Now in the war with the nomads, the squads of individual principalities usually took part. The boyars were free to choose their place of service and could at any time go to another prince. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and weapons. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsians were directly related to internal political changes in the Old Russian state. For a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsians became allies of the princes who were waging an internecine struggle.

The Russian-Polovtsian wars can be roughly divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the 11th century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the 12th - early 13th century.

Wars with the Polovtsy, the first stage (second half of the 11th century)

The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, another raid was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke came out to meet him Kiev Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky.

Battle of the Alta River (1068).

The opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsi were luckier and defeated the Russians who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a mutiny in Kiev, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The invasion of the Polovtsians was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who, with a small squad, boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the XI century, the chronicles are silent about major raids, but the "small war" periodically continued.

Battle of Stugna (1093).

The onslaught of the Polovtsians especially intensified in the 90s of the 11th century. In 1092, the nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also ravaged many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. In the raids of the 90s, the Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous. In 1093 the Polovtsian troops laid siege to the town of Torchesk. To meet them came Grand Duke Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich with a squad of 800 soldiers. On the way, he joined forces with the princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But by joining forces, the princes were unable to work out joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, referring to the lack of forces, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsi. In the end, the hot-headed Svyatopolk, wishing to win, won over the majority to his side. May 24 Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by the superior forces of the Polovtsians. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. In the stormy waters from the rains, many died (including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsians captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay tribute to them and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Tugorkan.

Battle of Trubezh (1096).

The marriage of Svyatopolk to the Polovtsian princess briefly tempered the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the Battle of Stugna the raids resumed with renewed vigor. Moreover, this time the southern princes did not manage to agree on joint actions at all, since the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich avoided the struggle and preferred to conclude not only peace with the Polovtsy, but also an alliance. With the help of the Polovtsy, he drove from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl Prince Vladimir Monomakh, who in the summer of 1095 had to single-handedly repel the raids of the nomads. The next year, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and besieged his army in Starodub. This strife was immediately taken advantage of by the Polovtsians, who moved to Russia on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kiev, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl.

Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak at Kiev, they crossed the Dnieper and unexpectedly for the Polovtsians appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians swiftly wade across the Trubezh River and attacked the Tugorkan army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the pursuit, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (Svyatopolk's father-in-law), along with his son and other noble military leaders, died.

Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the princes leaving for the Dnieper, almost captured Kiev with an unexpected raid. The Polovtsians plundered and burned the Pechersk Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian Khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After successfully repelling this raid, the Torks and other border steppe tribes began to go into the service of the Russians. The victory on the banks of Trubezh was of great importance in the ascent of the military leader Vladimir Monomakh, who became a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.

Wars with the Polovtsy, second stage (second half of the 12th century)

The external threat made it possible to temporarily slow down the process of the disintegration of state unity. In 1103, Vladimir Monomakh convinced Svyatopolk to organize a large-scale campaign against the nomads. From that time on, the offensive stage of the struggle against the Polovtsians began, the inspirer of which was Vladimir Monomakh. The 1103 campaign was the largest military operation against the Polovtsians. It was attended by the armed forces of seven princes. The united troops on boats and on foot reached the Dnieper rapids and turned from there into the depths of the steppes, to the town of Suten, where one of the large groups of nomads, led by Khan Urusob, was located. It was decided to set out in early spring, while the Polovtsian horses did not have time to gain strength after a long winter. The Russians destroyed the advanced patrols of the Polovtsians, which made it possible to ensure the surprise of the attack.

Battle of Suteni (1103).

The battle between the Russians and the Polovtsians took place on April 4, 1103. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian vanguard, led by the hero Altunopa, and completely destroyed it. Then, emboldened by their success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted complete defeat on them. According to the chronicle, never before had the Russians won such a famous victory over the Polovtsians. In the battle, almost the entire Polovtsian elite was destroyed - Urusoba and nineteen other khans. Many Russian prisoners were released. This victory marked the beginning of the offensive operations of the Russians against the Polovtsians.

Battle of Louben (1107).

Three years later, the Polovtsians, recovering from the blow, made a new raid. They captured a lot of booty and prisoners, but on the way back they were overtaken by the squads of Svyatopolk across the river Sula and defeated. In May 1107, Khan Bonyak invaded the Pereyaslav principality. He captured herds of horses and laid siege to the city of Luben. The princely coalition headed by princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came out to meet the invaders.

On August 12, they crossed the Sula River and decisively attacked the Polovtsians. They did not expect such a rapid onslaught and fled from the battlefield, abandoning their wagon train. The Russians pursued them as far as the Khorol River and took many prisoners. Despite the victory, the princes did not strive to continue the war, but tried to establish peaceful relations with the nomads. This, in particular, was evidenced by the fact that after the Battle of Luben, Russian princes Oleg and Vladimir Monomakh married their sons to Polovtsian princesses.

Battle of Salnitsa (1111).

However, hopes that family ties would strengthen Russian-Polovtsian ties and bring peace with the nomads did not come true. Within two years, hostilities resumed. Then Monomakh again convinced the princes to unite for joint action. He again proposed a plan of offensive actions and the transfer of the war into the depths of the Polovtsian steppes, characteristic of his general strategy. Monomakh managed to achieve coordination of actions from the princes and in 1111 organized a campaign, which became the pinnacle of his military successes.

The Russian army marched out through the snow. The infantry, which Vladimir Monomakh attached special importance to, rode on sleds. After four weeks of the campaign, Monomakh's army reached the Donets River. Never since the time of Svyatoslav have the Russians gone so far into the steppe. Two of the largest Polovtsian strongholds were taken - the cities of Sugrov and Sharukan. Having freed many prisoners there and seized rich booty, Monomakh's army set off on the return journey. However, the Polovtsians did not want to let the Russians out of their possessions alive. On March 24, the Polovtsian cavalry blocked the path of the Russian army. After a short fight, she was driven back. Two days later, the Polovtsians tried again.

The decisive battle took place on March 26 on the banks of the Salnitsa River. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir and Davyd. The Polovtsi suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, heavenly angels helped Russian soldiers to smite their enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Polovtsians. She contributed to the growth of popularity of Vladimir Monomakh - the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached "even to Rome."

After the death of the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk in 1113, the Polovtsian khans Aepa and Bonyak made a major raid in the hope of internal turmoil. The Polovtsian army laid siege to the Vyr fortress. But having learned about the approach of the Russian squads, it hastily retreated, not accepting the battle. Apparently, the factor of moral superiority of Russian soldiers affected.

In 1113, the Kiev throne was occupied by Vladimir Monomakh. During his reign (1113-1125), the fight against the Polovtsy was fought exclusively on their territory. In 1116, the Russian princes under the command of the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yaropolk (an active participant in previous campaigns) moved into the depths of the Don steppes, again captured Sharukan, Sugrov. Another center of the Polovtsians was taken - the town of Balin. After this campaign, the Polovtsian domination in the steppes came to an end. When in 1120 Yaropolk undertook another "preventive" campaign, the steppes were empty. By that time, the Polovtsi had already migrated to North Caucasus, away from the Russian borders. The northern Black Sea region was cleared of aggressive nomads, and Russian farmers could safely harvest. It was a period of revival of state power, which brought peace and tranquility to the lands of Ancient Russia.

Wars with the Polovtsy, third stage (second half of XII - early XIII century)

After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, Khan Atrak dared to return to the Don steppes from Georgia. But the Polovtsian raid on the southern Russian borders was repelled by Prince Yaropolk. However, soon the descendants of Monomakh were removed from power in Kiev by Vsevolod Olgovich - a descendant of another grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Oleg Svyatoslavovich. This prince entered into an alliance with the Polovtsy and used them as military force in their campaigns against the Galician princes and Poland. After the death of Vsevolod in 1146, a struggle broke out for the Kiev throne between the princes Izyaslav Mstislavovich and Yuri Dolgoruky. During this period, the active participation of the Polovtsians begins in internecine strife.

Here the regiments of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa distinguished themselves. So, Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsian troops to Kiev, trying to seize the capital of Ancient Russia.

Long-term strife brought to naught the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh to defend the Russian borders. The weakening of the military power of the ancient Russian state allowed the Polovtsians to strengthen and create a large union of tribes in the 70s of the XII century. It was headed by Khan Konchak, whose name is associated with a new surge of the Russian-Polovtsian confrontation. Konchak constantly fought with the Russian princes, plundering the southern borderlands. The most brutal raids were in the vicinity of Kiev, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. The Polovtsian onslaught intensified after Konchak's victory over the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185.

Hike of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185).

The prehistory of this famous campaign, sung in "The Lay of Igor's Host", is as follows. In the summer of 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, at the head of the princely coalition, made a campaign against the Polovtsians and inflicted a crushing defeat on them in the battle on the Orel River on July 30. 7 thousand Polovtsians were taken prisoner, including their leader - Khan Kobyak, who was executed as punishment for previous raids. Khan Konchak decided to take revenge for the death of Kobyak. He came to the borders of Russia in February 1185, but was defeated in the battle on March 1 on the Khorol River by the troops of Svyatoslav. It seemed that the times of Vladimir Monomakh were returning. Another joint blow was needed for the final crushing of the revived Polovtsian power.

This time, however, history did not repeat itself. The reason for this was the inconsistency of the actions of the princes. Influenced by the successes of Svyatoslav, his ally, Prince of Novgorod-Seversk, Igor Svyatoslavich, together with his brother Vsevolod, decided to get the laurels of the triumphant without anyone's help and went on a campaign on his own. Igor's army, numbering about 6 thousand people, moved into the depths of the steppes and turned out to be alone with all the forces of Konchak, who did not miss the chance given to him by the reckless prince.

Having retreated after the vanguard battle, the Polovtsians, according to all the rules of their tactics, lured the Russian army into a trap and surrounded them with much superior forces. Igor decided to make his way back to the river Seversky Donets... It should be noted the nobility of the brothers. Having cavalry for a breakthrough, they did not abandon their infantry to the mercy of fate, but ordered the mounted soldiers to dismount and fight on foot, so that everyone would break out of the encirclement together. "If we run, we kill ourselves, and leave ordinary people, then it will be a sin for us that we will give them up to our enemies; either we will die, or we will live together," the princes decided. The battle between Igor's squad and the Polovtsy took place on May 12, 1185. Before the battle Igor turned to the soldiers with the words: "Brothers! This is what we were looking for, so we are daring. Shame is worse than death!"

The fierce battle lasted for three days. On the first day, the Russians repelled the Polovtsian onslaught. But the next day one of the regiments broke down and ran. Igor rushed to the retreating to return them to the ranks, but was captured. Bloody battle continued after the capture of the prince. Finally, the Polovtsians, due to their numbers, managed to grind the entire Russian army. The death of a large army exposed a significant line of defense and, according to Prince Svyatopolk, "opened the gates to the Russian land." The Polovtsians were quick to take advantage of their success and made a number of raids on the Novgorod-Seversk and Pereyaslavl lands.

The exhausting struggle against the nomads, which lasted for more than one century, cost enormous sacrifices. Due to the constant raids, the fertile outskirts of the southern regions of Russia were depopulated, which contributed to their decline. Constant hostilities in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region led to the displacement of old trade routes to the Mediterranean region. Kievan Rus, which used to be a transit corridor from Byzantium to Northern and Central Europe, now remains aloof from new routes. Thus, the Polovtsian raids not least contributed to the decline of Southern Russia and the movement of the center of the Old Russian state to the northeast, to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

By the early 90s of the XII century, the raids had subsided, but after the death of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav in 1194, a new period of strife began, into which the Polovtsians were drawn. The geography of their attacks is expanding. The Polovtsi make repeated raids on the Ryazan principality. By the way, the Ryazan prince Roman "with the brethren" organized the last major Russian campaign against the Polovtsy in history in April 1206. During this period, the Polovtsians are already fully moving to the second stage of nomadism - with permanent winter roads and summer camps. The beginning of the XIII century is characterized by a gradual fading of their military activity. The chronicle dates the last Polovtsian foray into the Russian lands (the vicinity of Pereyaslavl) in 1210. Further development Russian-Polovtsian relations were interrupted by a hurricane from the east, as a result of which both the Polovtsians and Kievan Rus disappeared.

Based on materials from the portal "Great Wars in the History of Russia"

In the year 6619 (1111) ... And on Sunday, when they kiss the cross, they came to Psel, and from there they reached the river Golta. Then they waited for the soldiers, and from there they moved to Vorskla and there the next day, on Wednesday, they kissed the cross and put all their hope on the cross, shedding abundant tears. And from there they crossed many rivers, and came to the Don on the Tuesday of the sixth week of fasting. And they put on armor, and built regiments, and moved towards the city of Sharukan. And Prince Vladimir ordered the priests, riding before the army, to sing troparia and kontakion in honor of the honest cross and the canon of the Holy Mother of God. And in the evening they drove up to the city, and on Sunday people came out of the city with bows to the Russian princes and brought out fish and wine. And we spent the night there. And the next day, Wednesday, they went to Sugrov and, approaching, lit it, and on Thursday they moved from the Don; on Friday, the next day, March 24th, the Polovtsians gathered, built their regiments and went into battle. Our princes, placing their hope in God, said: "Here is death for us, so let us become strong." And they said goodbye to each other and, lifting up their eyes to heaven, called on the highest God. And when both sides met, and a fierce battle ensued, God above turned his anger-filled gaze on the strangers, and they fell before the Christians. And so the foreigners were defeated, and many of our enemies, adversaries, fell before the Russian princes and soldiers on the Degei stream. And God helped the Russian princes. And gave praise to God that day. And the next morning, when Saturday came, they celebrated Lazarev's Resurrection, the day of the Annunciation, and, having given praise to God, spent the Sabbath and waited until Sunday. On the Monday of Holy Week, the foreigners again gathered many many of their regiments and moved, like a huge forest, in thousands of thousands. And the Russians surrounded the regiments. And the Lord God sent an angel to help the Russian princes. And the Polovtsian and Russian regiments moved, and the regiments met in the first battle, and the roar was like thunder. And a fierce battle ensued between them, and people fell on both sides. And Vladimir began to attack with his regiments and David, and, seeing this, the Polovtsians fled. And the Polovtsians fell in front of the regiment Vladimirov, invisibly killed by an angel, which many people saw, and heads, invisibly<кем>cut off, fell to the ground. And they defeated them on the Monday of Holy Week, the month of March, on the 27th. Many many foreigners were killed on the Salnitsa River. And God saved his people. Svyatopolk, and Vladimir and Davyd glorified God, who gave them such a victory over the filthy, and took a lot of cattle, and horses, and sheep, and captured many captives with their hands. And they asked the captives, saying: "How did it happen: you were so strong and so many, but could not resist and soon fled?" They answered, saying: "How can we fight with you when some others rode over you in weapons of light and terrible and helped you?" These only could be angels sent by God to help Christians. After all, it was the angel who put the idea to Vladimir Monomakh to call his brothers, Russian princes, to foreigners ...

So now, with God's help, through the prayers of the Holy Mother of God and the holy angels, the Russian princes returned home to their people with glory, which reached all distant countries - to the Greeks, to the Hungarians, Poles and Czechs, she even reached Rome, to glory God always, now and forever, amen.

THE MAIN HERO - MONOMACH

Salnitsa (Russian-Polovtsian wars, XI-XIII centuries). The river in the Don steppes, in the area of ​​which on March 26, 1111, a battle took place between the united army of Russian princes under the command of Prince Vladimir Monomakh (up to 30 thousand people) and the Polovtsian army. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir Monomakh and Davyd Svyatoslavich. The Polovtsian cavalry tried to cut off the way home for the Russian army, but during the battle suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, heavenly angels helped Russian soldiers to smite their enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Polovtsians. Never since the campaigns of Svyatoslav (10th century) have Russian soldiers gone so far into the eastern steppe regions. This victory contributed to the growing popularity of Vladimir Monomakh - the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached "even Rome."

CRUSHING TO THE STEPPE OF 1111

This trip began in an unusual way. When, at the end of February, the army prepared to leave Pereyaslavl, the bishop and the priests stood in front of it, and they carried the large cross with singing. It was erected not far from the gates of the city, and all the soldiers, including the princes, passing and passing by the cross, received the blessing of the bishop. And then, at a distance of 11 versts, the representatives of the clergy moved ahead of the Russian army. In the future, they went in a wagon train of troops, where all the church utensils were located, inspiring Russian soldiers to feats of arms.

Monomakh, who inspired this war, gave it the character of a crusade similar to the crusades of the Western rulers against the Muslims of the East. Pope Urban II initiated these campaigns. And in 1096 the first crusade of the Western knights began, ending with the capture of Jerusalem and the creation of the knightly Kingdom of Jerusalem. The sacred idea of ​​freeing the "Holy Sepulcher" in Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels became the ideological basis of this and subsequent campaigns of Western knights to the East.

Information about the crusade and the liberation of Jerusalem quickly spread throughout the Christian world. It was known that Count Hugh Vermendois, brother of the French king Philip I, son of Anna Yaroslavna, cousin of Monomakh, Svyatopolk and Oleg, took part in the second crusade. One of those who brought this information to Russia was Abbot Daniel, who visited at the beginning of the 12th century. in Jerusalem, and then left a description of his journey about his stay in the crusader kingdom. Daniel was later one of Monomakh's companions. Perhaps it was he who had the idea of ​​giving the campaign of Russia against the "filthy" character of the crusade invasion. This explains the role that was assigned to the clergy in this campaign.

Svyatopolk, Monomakh, Davyd Svyatoslavich and their sons set out on a campaign. With Monomakh were his four sons - Vyacheslav, Yaropolk, Yuri and nine-year-old Andrey. ...

On March 27, the main forces of the parties converged on the Solnitsa River, a tributary of the Don. According to the chronicler, the Polovtsians "came out like a boar (forest) velitsyn and the darkness of darkness", they surrounded the Russian army from all sides. Monomakh did not, as usual, stand still, waiting for the onslaught of the Polovtsian horsemen, but led the army towards them. The warriors met in hand-to-hand combat. The Polovtsian cavalry in this crush lost its maneuver, and the Rus, in hand-to-hand combat, began to prevail. In the midst of the battle, a thunderstorm began, the wind intensified, and it rained heavily. The Rus reorganized their ranks in such a way that the wind and rain hit the Polovtsians in the face. But they fought bravely and pushed back the chelo (center) of the Russian army, where the Kievites fought. Monomakh came to their aid, leaving his "regiment of the right hand" to his son Yaropolk. The appearance of the Monomakh banner in the center of the battle inspired the Russians, and they managed to overcome the panic that had begun. Finally, the Polovtsians could not stand the fierce battle and rushed to the Don ford. They were chased and cut; no prisoners were taken here either. About ten thousand Polovtsians were killed on the battlefield, the rest threw down their weapons, asking them to save their lives. Only a small part, led by Sharukan, went to the steppe. Others left for Georgia, where they were recruited by David IV.

The news of the Russian crusade to the steppe was delivered to Byzantium, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic and Rome. Thus, Russia at the beginning of the XII century. became the left flank of the general offensive of Europe to the East.

UNCATCHABLE OIL TUBE

Salnitsa is mentioned in the annals ... in connection with the famous campaign of Vladimir Monomakh in 1111, when Konchak's grandfather, the Polovtsian Khan Sharukan, was killed. This approach has been analyzed by many researchers, but on the issue of the localization of Salnitsa, no unanimous opinion has been developed.

The name of the river is also found in some lists of "Books Big Blueprint":" And below Izyum, the Salnitsa River fell to Donetsk on the right side. And below that - Izumets. " On the basis of these data, for the first time, V.M. Tatishchev: "this flows into Donets on the right side below Izium."

In connection with the events of 1185, a similar attempt was made by N.M. Karamzin: "Here the Salnitsa river is named Salnitsa, which flows into the Don near the Semikarakorskaya stanitsa."

In the famous article by P.G. Butkov, where, in fact, for the first time significant attention was paid to many aspects of the geography of Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign, Salnitsa is identified with the r. Butt. M. Ya. Aristov identified Salnitsa, mentioned in connection with the events of 1111 and 1185, with Thor. Later, D.I. Bagaley, V.G. Lyaskoronsky. V.A. Afanasyev. Approximately also M.P. Barsov, localizing Salnitsa "not far from the mouth of the Oskol."

K.V. Kudryashov localized r. Salnitsa in the Raisin area. V.M. Glukhov rightly noted that the mention in the Ipatiev Chronicle ("went to Salnitsa") could not touch a small river and the chronicler "could not take it as a geographical reference point." A well-known expert on antiquities B.A. Shramko believed that we are talking about two different rivers. V.G. Fedorov, on the contrary, identifies, according to V.M. Tatishchev both Salnitsy.

After analyzing in detail the main hypotheses and putting forward additional arguments, M.F. The hetman clarified that Salnitsa is the old name of the r. Sukhoi Izyumets, flowing into the Seversky Donets opposite the Izyum barrow.

L.E. Makhnovets distinguishes between two rivers of Salnitsa: the one that is mentioned in the description of Monomakh's campaign in 1111, the scientist, with the proviso "obviously" identifies with the river. Solon - the right tributary of the Popilnyushka (the right tributary of the Bereka), and Salnitsa, associated with Igor's campaign, traditionally - with an unnamed river near Izyum.

In the latest research of the Luhansk historian V.I. Podova substantiates the so-called southern variant of the location of the theater of military operations. Having identified both Salnitsy, the researcher now localizes one river in the Dnieper basin, believing that this is the modern river. Solona is a right tributary of the river. Wolf flowing into Samara ...

It seems to us that the desired Saline could be the inflow of the Torah Crooked Butt. Its headwaters and the headwaters of Kalmius are very close, originating from one hill - the watershed of the Dnieper and Don basins, along which the Muravsky way passed. Kalmius or one of its tributaries in this case should be identified with Kayala.

Vi. THE DECLINE OF THE KIEV PRINCE

(continuation)

Revitalization of the fight against barbarians. - Konchak. - Campaign, captivity and release of Igor Seversky. - Invasion of the Polovtsy. - The release of Igor. - Black Cowls. - The last deeds of Vsevolodich.

The agreement that had been established between the Olgovichs and Rostislavichs was not slow to be reflected in the external affairs of Southern Russia, i.e. on her relationship to the steppe barbarians; the fight against them was revived with new energy. Having strengthened on the Kiev table, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich no longer had the need to caress his former allies, and we see a number of successful campaigns that the southern Russian princes are undertaking with joint forces, with Svyatoslav and Rurik at the head. They smash the Polovtsian hordes, free numerous Russian captives from slavery and take the Polovtsian khans themselves, including Kobyak Karlyevich with two sons, Bashkord, Osaluk, and others. in large hordes.

The most glorious of the Polovtsian khans of that time was Konchak. The Russian chronicle has preserved an interesting legend about its origin. When Vladimir Monomakh smashed the Polovtsi in the steppes of the Zadonskys, one of their khans, Otrok, fled to the Apes behind the Iron Gates, i.e. to the Caucasus; and the other khan, apparently, his brother Syrchan remained on the Don. When Vladimir died, Syrchan sent Orev to the Monkey with this news; I ordered my brother to sing Polovtsian songs to persuade him to return to his homeland, and if he doesn’t listen, then let him smell some kind of potion or herb called emshan. The buzzard did just that. Smelling the potions, the exile cried and said: "Yes, it is better to lie with bones in your own land than to be in someone else's glory." He came to his homeland, and from him Konchak was born; This same Konchak, "accursed, godless and damned," as the chronicle calls him, came to Russia with the Polovtsian horde in 1184. He threatened to burn and enslave the Russian cities, for he had with him some kind of "non-German" who fired live fire; in addition, according to the chronicle, he had projectiles and self-firing bows, so huge and tight that 50 people could hardly pull such a bow. Konchak settled on the Ukraine and started negotiations for peace with Yaroslav Vsevolodich; it was the younger brother of Svyatoslav, who handed him his Chernigov table. The Grand Duke sent to tell his brother not to believe the insidious Polovtsy and go to war with them. However, Yaroslav avoided the campaign under the pretext of his peace negotiations with Konchak. Svyatoslav joined forces with Rurik and hastened against the barbarians. The senior princes with the main forces walked backwards, and in front of themselves ("at the head", as they said at that time) they dispatched several younger princes. The latter met on the road guests, or merchants, who had passed the steppes, and learned from them that the Polovtsi were standing on the Khorol River, near the rampart ("sholomiya"), which fenced off the Russian land from the side of the steppes. The younger princes suddenly came out from behind this rampart, struck the Polovtsians and took many prisoners; among them, they brought to Svyatoslav and the non-German who fired live fire. When the senior princes approached, Konchak fled to the steppe. This happened on March 1, 1185, i.e. in the most New Year, since the Russians counted the beginning of it from March. In pursuit of the Polovtsy, the Grand Duke dispatched 6,000 Black Klobuk, or Berendey, with their leader Kuntuvdy; but because of the thaw that had come, the pursuit could not overtake the Polovtsians.

In this campaign, except for Yaroslav of Chernigov, the princes Seversky did not take part; the latter did not manage to unite with the Grand Duke because of the speed with which his campaign was completed. In the brow of the Seversk princes was then his cousin Igor Svyatoslavich, who had already distinguished himself in battles with the Polovtsy more than once and as recently as 1183 undertook a successful search in the steppe together with his brother Vsevolod, his son Vladimir and nephew Svyatoslav. He planned to repeat the same thing now, after the defeat of Konchak at Khorol, where, to his great regret, he did not manage to keep up in time. Without asking the head of a kind of Svyatoslav of Kiev, he decided to immediately march into the steppe with some of the Seversk squads and at the end of April set out from his capital city. In Putivl, his son Vladimir, who reigned in that city, united with him; here came the nephew Svyatoslav Olgovich from Rylsk. His cousin Yaroslav Chernigovsky sent his boyar Olstin Oleksich with a detachment of coves to help him; they were semi-nomadic peoples, settled in the southern reaches of the Chernigov land, tribesmen of the Black Klobuk. The modern poet depicts Igor's preparations for the campaign in the following words: "The Komoni laugh at Suloi; glory rings in Kiev, trumpets are blowing in Novyegrad; there are banners in Putivl; Igor is waiting for his brother Vsevolod's dear." But the latter took a different route, from Kursk. Igor moved to the Donets, crossed it, reached the banks of the Oskol and here he waited for his brother, the daring Vsevolod Trubchevsky. This campaign of four princes, of whom the eldest was no more than 35 years old, made a strong impression on contemporaries, so that, in addition to a fairly detailed story of the chronicle, it became the subject of a wonderful poetic work of Ancient Russia, known as "The Lay of Igor's Campaign."

Map of the campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsi (1185)

Image author - Vladimir Lobachev

At the very beginning of the campaign, there are bad signs that predict a sad outcome for him. Once, when the army was approaching the Donets, before the evening the sun was covered with a kind of haze, so it seemed like more than a month, and this circumstance confused the squad. But Igor is trying to cheer her up. Now Russia is behind the Shelomyan, i.e. crossed the Polovetsky shaft and went deep into the steppe. Warriors sent forward to "catch the tongue", i.e. on reconnaissance, returned and reported that the barbarians were going to a large number and prepare for battle. "Hurry to attack them," the scouts said to the princes, "or return home, because the time is unfavorable for us." But Igor replied that returning home without a battle would be rubbish more than death. Meanwhile, according to the poet, the carnivores smell the near prey: flocks of jackdaws fly to the Great Don, wolves howl over the ravines, eagles call animals to their bones with their scream, foxes crack on scarlet Russian shields.

Polovtsi gathered, young and old, on the banks of some river Syurleya; and vezh your own, i.e. wagons with wives, children and herds were sent further back. Igor lined up the Russian army in the usual order of battle. It consisted of six regiments. Igor's regiment marched in the middle, on the right - his brother Vsevolod, on the left - his nephew Svyatoslav; it was the main army; in front of her were Vladimir Igorevich with his squad and the Chernigov regiment, i.e. boyar Olstin with kouy. The sixth detachment was a modular one: it consisted of riflemen sent in advance from all five regiments. Russia advanced briskly, covered with iron chain mail, dappled with red shields, under the canopy of its banners, fluttering by the wind. The front detachments rushed towards the enemy; and Igor and Vsevolod quietly followed them, "not disbanding their regiment." The Polovtsi could not withstand the onslaught of some of the front squads and fled. Rus chased after the barbarians, reached their vezh and captured a large crowd: maidens, gold and silk fabrics; and so many Polovtsian jackets, epanches and other clothes were seized that, according to the poet, even bridges were bridges over swamps and dirty places. When the victors camped among the Polovtsian vezh, Igor began to say to the princes and boyars: is not this victory enough and not to turn back before the rest of the hordes gather? But Svyatoslav Olgovich announced that he and his retinue were chasing the Polovtsy far and that his tired horses would not keep up with the other regiments. Vsevolod supported his nephew, and it was decided not to rush to return. The young princes rejoiced at their victory and frivolously boasted: "Our brothers, who walked with the Grand Duke Svyatoslav, fought with the Polovtsy looking at Pereyaslavl; they themselves came; and the princes did not dare to go to them. We have already killed the rotten in their own land; now we will go. for the Don, in order to destroy them completely; let us go to Lukomorye, where our grandfathers did not go either. " Encouraged by the success of the Seversk princes, it seems, had the hope of recapturing their hereditary Tmutarakan inheritance.

"A good nest is slumbering in the field of Olgovo; it has flown far away," says the poet. Meanwhile, the Polovtsian hordes are rushing from everywhere to the scene of action; two strongest khans came, Gzak and Konchak. At dawn, Russia was amazed to see the countless hordes of barbarians who surrounded it like a thick forest. The princes decided to make their way to the fatherland; but in order not to abandon the foot warriors ("black people") to sacrifice to the enemies, the valiant Olgovichi ordered their squad to dismount and slowly began to retreat, desperately fighting the barbarians who were pushing from all sides. Vsevolod was especially heroic, whom the poet calls either Bui-tur or Yar-tur. Where he turns, shining with his golden shell, there lie the filthy Polovtsian heads; their Avar helmets were smashed with steel swords and red-hot sabers by the Russians. It took place on the banks of the Kajala on hot days in May; Russian squads were cut off from the water; people and horses were thirsty. On the third day of the battle, Sunday, the koui broke down and fled. Igor, already wounded in the arm, galloped after them, trying to stop them, and took off his helmet to show them his face; but in vain; he could not turn back the coes. Here, on the way back to his regiment, he was intercepted by the Polovtsy and taken prisoner. Vsevolod, who finally made his way to the water, broke all his weapons against the enemies and was also captured by them. Then the battle was over; the princes with the rest of the squads were dismantled by the Polovtsy and divorced according to their vezha. Igor went to Khan Chilbuk from the Targolov family, Vsevolod to Roman, the son of Gzagka, Svyatoslav went to the Burchevich family, and Vladimir to the Ulashevich family. Defeat and captivity humbled Igor's pride; he accepted them as God's punishment for his past sins, for the much shedding of Christian blood in civil strife with the Russian princes. With a contrite heart, he remembered a Russian city that had been taken up on the shield and subjected to all possible ravages from the military people.

After the slaughter of Igor Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsy. Painting by V. Vasnetsov, 1880

"The Lay of Igor's Regiment" touchingly depicts the sadness and despondency that spread across the Russian land at the news of the fate of the Svyatoslavichs. In particular, it paints poetically the cry of Igor's wife in Putivl on the visor, or on the city wall; complaining of her grief, she turns to the wind, the sun and the Dnieper. His wife was Evfrosinya Yaroslavna, daughter of the Galician prince. The unhappy end of the campaign gives the poet an opportunity to point out the main reason for the triumph of the barbarians - the strife and strife of the Russian princes; he recalls better times, about Vladimir Monomakh, who was the storm of the Polovtsians; talks about the last successful campaigns of Svyatoslav of Kiev.

Knowing nothing about the enterprise of the Seversk princes, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich from Kiev went to his hereditary region, to the land of the Vyatichi, to collect warriors and supplies there; for he had the intention, together with the Rostislavichs, for the whole summer to go to the Don and fight the Polovtsians. On the way back near Novgorod-Seversky, the Grand Duke learned with displeasure that his cousins, without asking his consent, had secretly undertook a campaign in the steppe. From Novgorod-Seversky, he sailed on boats along the Desna to Chernigov, and then the news of the defeat and captivity of his relatives reached him. The Severskaya land, especially the Semey, was in great confusion; she lost her princes and troops; in a rare family did not mourn the loss of anyone closest to them. Svyatoslav took action immediately. He sent his sons to the border towns of the Seversk to defend the region from the barbarians; at the same time he sent to David of Smolensk and other princes, recalling their promise to march against the Polovtsians in the summer and inviting them to hurry up the campaign. "Go, brother, guard the Russian land," he ordered to tell David. The latter did indeed come with his Smolny residents and, together with other princes, stood at Trepol; and the brother of the Kiev prince Yaroslav gathered his army in Chernigov. These preparations were very timely, for the Polovtsi, proud of their victory and the capture of four Russian princes, themselves marched in large numbers to the Russian land. Fortunately, a quarrel broke out between the khans. Konchak said: "Let's go to the Kiev side; our brothers were beaten there and our glorious Bonyak perished." And Gzak called the Polovtsians to the Seven, saying: "There were only wives and children left, ready for us is full; let us take the cities without fear." The barbarians were divided into two parts. Some followed Gzak to Putivl, fought the surrounding volost, burned villages, burned a prison, or an external fortification, Putivl, but they did not take the city itself and went back to the steppe. Others with Konchak went to Pereyaslavl and laid siege to it. But the courageous Vladimir Glebovich, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky, reigned here; he made a desperate sortie, was seriously wounded and barely saved by his squad from captivity. In vain, the messengers of Vladimir called rather for the help of the princes who stood at Trepol. Svyatoslav also hurried the Rostislavichi. The Smolensk army started a feud with its prince and began to create noisy parties; she announced that she had only gone as far as Kiev and that she was now exhausted on the march. David was forced to turn back. The singer of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" hints at this feud, saying: "The banners of Vladimir (Monomakh) went to Rurik and David; but their banners blow in different directions. " Finally, Rurik and others, joining with the Grand Duke, crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper and went to Pereyaslavl. Then the Polovtsians left the siege of this city; they rushed to Sula, plundered the volosts lying along it and laid siege to the Rims (Romny). The barbarians of the steppe, indomitable in plundering and destroying open settlements, were not skilled at sieging cities; but this time an accident helped them get hold of Rimov. When the besieged crowded on the visor, under their weight two gorodni broke off from it and fell with the people directly on the side of the besiegers. Then the barbarians broke into the city and captured all who survived the sword; escaped only those who fled to the nearby swampy places and wilds. After that, Konchak went to his steppes. Probably, it is his invasion that the above-quoted words of the chronicler hint at: "You have demolished Sulu."

Igor Svyatoslavich lived in captivity awaiting ransom or exchange. The Polovtsi treated him well, respecting his nobility and courage, and especially thanks to the surety of Konchak, who considered him a matchmaker, because he predicted his daughter for his son. Igor was assigned 20 watchmen; but the latter did not embarrass the prince and even obeyed his orders; with him there were five or six more of his own servants and the son of his thousand. He was even allowed to go out at will and amuse himself with falconry. A priest was also called from Russia to celebrate St. service: Igor thought that he would have to be in captivity for a long time. The horde in which he was roamed this summer on the banks of the Thor, one of the left tributaries of the Donets. Among the Polovtsy there was a certain Ovlur, who became attached to the prince and offered to flee with him to Russia. The prince did not dare at first. But the son of the tysyatsky and the prince's equestrian persuaded him to take advantage of the offer; they told Igor that the Polovtsi were threatening to beat the captured princes and their entire squad. Then Igor made up his mind and sent the groom to tell Ovlur to wait for him with a lead horse on the other side of the Thor. The time for the escape was chosen in the evening. The Polovtsian guards, having drunk their kumis, began to play and have fun, thinking that the prince was sleeping. But he did not sleep: after praying earnestly in front of the icon, Igor lifted the back cavity of the tent and went out unnoticed. He crossed the river, mounted a horse and, accompanied by Ovlur, rode home. When the horses were driven away, they had to make their way across the steppe on foot, keeping all the precautions to hide from the pursuit. Eleven days later, the fugitives reached the border Russian town of Donets, from where Igor triumphantly went to his Novgorod-Seversky. He was not slow to visit the head of his kind, the Grand Duke of Kiev, and bow to the Kiev shrines in gratitude for his release. "The sun is shining in heaven," exclaims the singer of the Lay, "Igor is the prince in the Russian land; the girls are singing on the Danube, voices rush across the sea to Kiev; Igor is driving along Borichev to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshche; there is joy in the country, joy among the people." Two years later, Igor's son Vladimir returned from captivity, accompanied by his daughter Konchak, with whom he married. Vsevolod Trubchevsky and Svyatoslav Rylsky were also freed.

After that, the struggle against the steppe barbarians became even more lively and stubborn. We see almost annual campaigns against the Polovtsians: either the old princes Svyatoslav and Rurik are fighting the nomads with united forces, then they send young princes or Black Klobuk with their commanders to them. Russia is destroying the Polovtsian vezhes; but the barbarians, in turn, seizing a convenient time, run into the Russian Ukrainians, burn the villages and take away many prisoners. However, with all the revival, the fight against them no longer has the same strength and energy as in the days of Monomakh or his son Mstislav. The whole history of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich shows that he was an intelligent and active prince. Thanks to the peace that was established for a while and the agreement with the head of the Rostislavichi, Rurik, he sometimes manages to unite the squads of the southern Russian princes for a common cause; but he no longer had any influence on the rest of the Russian lands. He could not always inspire unanimity in the southern princes themselves. His own brother, Yaroslav Chernigovsky, somehow reluctantly and sluggishly helped him in enterprises against the Polovtsy. So, it was his fault that the big winter campaign of 1187 failed. For deep snows the Russian army did not go straight to the steppe, but along the Dnieper; when she reached the river Snoporoda (Samara), the princes learned that the Polovtsian vezhi and herds were not far away, in some area called the Blue Forest. But Yaroslav Chernigovsky suddenly refused to go further; in vain did Svyatoslav and Rurik persuade him to make another transition in no more than half a day. Yaroslav stood his ground, responding by the fact that most of his troops were infantry, which was very tired; and so they went further than it was supposed. As a result of this strife, the princes returned home with nothing.

Black Cowls, essential assistants in steppe hikes as a horse army, they did not always act in favor of Russia with the same zeal. It happened that sometimes Russian princes were in a hurry to repel the raids of some predatory horde; and the Black Klobuki will secretly inform "their matchmakers" of the Polovtsians, and they will leave in time to the steppe with the plundered and full of spoils. Sometimes the Black Klobuki simply refused to go to the nearest Polovtsian clans, with whom they were in friendly and kinship relations; or, having captured the Polovtsian Khan, secretly from the Russian princes, they took a ransom from him and let him go. Especially a lot of evil was caused to the Russian land by one of their elders, the above-mentioned Kuntuvdy. In the summer of 1190, Svyatoslav and Rurik, taking advantage of the temporary lull, undertook long-distance fishing together; they set off in boats along the Dnieper, reached the mouth of the Tyasmin river, and in the vicinity of it they killed and caught many animals and various game. They returned home merrily and celebrated a successful hunt for a long time. At this time, Svyatoslav ordered to seize and detain Kuntuvdiy; Rurik stood up for him and asked for his freedom; Kiev prince let him go, taking an oath of allegiance. But the vengeful bit immediately went to the Polovtsy and then for several years went with them to Russia, burned and plundered border places. By the way, he ruined the city of some Churnaya, probably one of the Tork Elders, perhaps his rival and the culprit of his disgrace. His revenge and raids stopped only thanks to Rurik, who persuaded Kuntuvdiya to leave the Polovtsy and gave him the possession of the town of Dveren on the Ros River.

However, the Black Klobuki rendered many services in our struggle against the Polovtsy. Sometimes these semi-nomadic peoples, as greedy for prey as the steppe barbarians, themselves asked the princes to go with them to the Polovtsian vezhes in order to capture as many horses, cattle and servants there as possible. They mainly used the time when the Polovtsians, leaving their vezhes and herds, raided the Danubian countries. Particularly successful were the enterprises of the Black Klobuki under the command of Rurikov's son Rostislav, to whom his father gave Torchesk, main city Pig, or southern Kiev Ukraine; and here the most daring princes were usually imprisoned in order to protect the Russian land from the barbarians. The most remarkable campaign was made by him in 1193. This winter, he was fishing near the city of Chernobyl, when the best people from the Black Klobuki came to him and asked to go with them to the steppe, since the circumstances were very favorable. Rostislav willingly agreed and went immediately to Torchesk to gather his squad. He did not even consider it necessary to seek permission from his father Rurik; the latter was then in Ovruch and was preparing for a campaign against Lithuania. Rostislav invited his cousin Mstislav Mstislavich (Udaliy), who held the city of Trepol, to go along. Mstislav readily agreed. With their squads and Black Klobuki, they flew by surprise to the Polovtsian lords and captured many cattle, horses and servants: the Black Klobuki, obviously, chose the most convenient time for this raid. The Polovtsi gathered and went in pursuit, but did not dare to engage in open battle. By Christmas Rostislav returned to his Torchesk, and from there he went to his older relatives with "saigats", that is. with gifts from his booty: first to Father Rurik in Ovruch, then to Uncle David in Smolensk, and from there to Vladimir on the Klyazma, to his father-in-law Vsevolod Yuryevich.

Around that time, the troubles caused by the assassination of Bogolyubsky had already ceased in the Suzdal land; The Vladimir table was occupied by his younger brother Vsevolod III, and under his clever, firm control, Northern Russia again gained predominance over Southern Russia; so that the southern princes and Kiev itself were forced to recognize the seniority of Vsevolod. Thus, in Russia there were already two great reigns: one in Kiev, the other in Vladimir Klyazminsky. The southern princes were in a hurry to intermarry with the powerful sovereign. Suzdal. By the way, Rurik married his daughter Verkhuslava to his son Rostislav in 1187. Verhuslava was only eight years old; but such a circumstance did not prevent the marriage union according to the customs of that time. Vsevolod sent his daughter south with a large retinue of boyars and their wives, providing him with a rich dowry, consisting of gold and silver things. Mother and father accompanied her to the three crossings and said goodbye with great tears. The wedding of the young couple took place in Belgorod and was performed by Bishop Maxim of Belgorod in the "wooden" church of St. Apostle. The wedding was celebrated wonderfully; it was attended by up to twenty princes. Rurik generously gifted his young daughter-in-law and, by the way, gave her the city of Bryagin; and the boyars who saw her off were sent to Suzdal with large gifts. Judging by the chronicle, this wedding generally made an impression on contemporaries and was the subject of much talk. When Rostislav, after the aforementioned campaign against the Polovtsy, together with his wife, visited his father-in-law, Vsevolod, who dearly loved Verkhuslava, kept his son-in-law and daughter with him for the whole winter, after which he spent them with great honor and rich gifts.

Meanwhile, Rostislav's foray into the steppe changed the orders of his father. Svyatoslav Kievsky sent a message to Rurik: "Your son touched Polovtsev and began to fight with him, you want to go the other way, leaving your land; no, go now to Russia and guard it." Let us not forget that the land of Kiev was called Rus at that time. Rurik listened and with his regiments set off for southern Ukraine, postponing his campaign to Lithuania, which was already beginning to noticeably press against our western borders. Not later than in the summer of the same 1193, i.e. even before Rostislav's campaign, the aged Svyatoslav tried to conclude a lasting peace with the Polovtsian khans in order to take a break from incessant worries. He and Rurik gathered in Kanev and sent to summon the khans to negotiate peace. Western, or "Lukomorskie" khans, Itogly and Akush, did indeed arrive; but the eastern ones, Osoluk and Izay, from the Burchevich family, settled on the other bank of the Dnieper opposite Kanev and refused to cross the river, inviting the princes themselves to cross to their side. The princes replied that there was no such custom either with their grandfathers or with their fathers that they themselves would go to the Polovtsy. Although the Lukomorskys willingly agreed to peace and Rurik advised to take advantage of this, but since the Burchevichi persisted, Svyatoslav said: "I cannot put up with one half." And the congress ended in nothing.

This was the last act of Svyatoslav in relation to the steppe barbarians. There is no doubt that, in addition to the defense of the Chernigov and Kiev borders, Svyatoslav and the entire Olgovich family had one more motivation that drove them to a stubborn struggle with the steppe. Behind this steppe, on the shores of the Azov and Black Seas, lay their ancestral inheritance Tmutarakansky, once a rich and commercial area thanks to the proximity to the Greek cities in Taurida and the Caucasian region. The Polovtsian hordes gradually tore away this region from Dnieper Rus and barred the path of her hereditary princes to it. It was to this Tmutarakan Rus that the grandchildren of Oleg Svyatoslavich tried to get through, which is also hinted at by the singer "The Lay of Igor's Host." But all attempts did not end in favor of the Russian princes; already had to think only about the protection of neighboring Ukrain. And the newly arrived princes' civil strife again gave the Polovtsians the opportunity not only to ravage these ukraines with impunity, but also to plunder the very capital of Ancient Rus.

Chronicle on Ipat. list. What kind of living fire is spoken of here is unknown. It is reliable, however, that in this era in the East, it was among the Saracens and the Turks, there was some kind of flamethrower projectile, which they used in the wars with the crusaders. Maybe it was something similar to the Greek or so-called. Median fire.

The most detailed story about the campaign, captivity and release of Igor Svyatoslavich is in the Ipatiev list. In describing the event, we borrowed some features from a poem belonging to an unknown Russian singer of the late 12th century, depicting the fate of the same campaign under the title Word of Igor's Host. "Regiment" was then used in the meaning of an army, as well as a battle, war, rati. This remarkable poetic work of Ancient Russia was found at the end of the 18th century by the collector of domestic rarities, Count Musin-Pushkin, in one old collection and was first published in 1800. His original burned down in the Moscow fire in 1812. This "Word" gave rise to an extensive literature, consisting of his numerous editions, interpretations and transcriptions, both prosaic and poetic. These are the publications: Palipin 1807, Pozharsky 1819, Gramatin 1823, Sakharov 1839, Golovin 1840 and others. The most remarkable publications, provided with critical interpretations, are Dubensky (Russian. A word about P. Igorev "- for students. M. 1866) and Prince. Vyazemsky ("Notes on the Word about P. Igorev". St. Petersburg, 1875). It is also interesting to see several explanations of Shevyrev's "Lay" in the History of Russk. literature (T. I. Ch. 2. M. 1846) and Buslaev - "Russian poetry of the XI and the beginning of the XII century" (Chronicles of Russian Literature - published by Prof. Tikhonravov. T. IM 1859), in particular the explanations of E.V. ... Barsova (several volumes). Of the poetic transcriptions, I will point to the work of Maikov (in the third part of the collection of his poems).

Regarding the river Kayala, on the banks of which the battle took place, according to the "Lay of P. Igor" and according to the Ipatiev list, it is currently difficult to determine which river it is. Karamzin considered it Kagalnik, which flows into the Don on the right side, above the Donets. But this is still a conjectural assumption. For some reason, one might think that the main battle took place somewhere closer to Sea of ​​Azov, or to Lukomorye, as the Seversk princes call it in the chronicles. Some scholars identified Kayala with Kalmius, flowing into the Sea of ​​Azov (Butkov, Aristov), ​​others with Thor. (Proceedings of the 3rd Archaeologist. Congress).

Appanage prince Igor, heading Novgorod - Seversk principality, a brave warrior, in 1185 made a campaign against the Polovtsians. Khan Konchak surrounded his regiments on the banks of the Kajala River and defeated them. The commander was taken prisoner, but managed to escape. Igor's campaign against the Polovtsi is discussed in an outstanding secular literary work XII century "Word about Igor's regiment". The main disaster of Russia was its weakness. "Word ..." supplements the chronicles with important details. From it we learn what happened in the south of Russia "when the plowmen rarely shouted, but often the crows croaked, dividing the corpses." The author of the work describes the weapons, the movement of the troops, the tactics of battle.

Dangerous enemies of the Russian principalities - Cumans

In the XII century, the Polovtsians became the most dangerous enemies of the ancient Russian lands. This nomadic people prevailed in the steppe zone, in the valleys of the Dnieper and Don rivers. This period marked by constant attacks by nomads led by the energetic Khan Konchak. Russian chronicles call him "a cursed and godless destroyer."
Wars were common. Military campaigns were not only a way to expand their territory, but to raise authority and glory.
Prince Igor was 35 years old during the military campaign. He previously maintained friendly relations with Khan Konchak and used the Polovtsians in internecine wars with neighboring princes. In 1180, the prince and the Polovtsian khan together undertook a campaign against Kiev, which ended in failure. Since 1183, Igor begins to fight with the Polovtsian Khan and carries out independent campaigns against the nomads. In the aforementioned literary work, a brave and courageous prince appears before the readers, but he is reckless and short-sighted, cares more about his glory and honor than about his homeland.
A year before the famous tragic campaign, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav together with the military forces of other princes defeated the Polovtsian army. The danger seemed to recede. Igor did not manage to join the troops of the Kiev prince, since the spring ice prevented his cavalry from arriving on time.

Start of the hike

3 day battle

The Polovtsi (11-13th centuries) are a nomadic people of Turkic origin, who became one of the main serious political opponents of the princes of Ancient Rus.

At the beginning of the 11th century. the Polovtsians moved out of the Volga region, where they had lived before, towards the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pechenegs and Tork tribes along the way. After crossing the Dnieper, they reached the lower reaches of the Danube, occupying the vast territories of the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh. In the same period, the steppes occupied by the Polovtsy began to be called the Polovtsian steppes (in Russian chronicles) and Desht-i-Kypchak (in the chronicles of other peoples).

Name of the people

The people also have the names "Kipchaks" and "Kumans". Each term has its own meaning and appeared in special conditions. So, the name "Polovtsy", generally accepted in the territory of Ancient Russia, came from the word "stripes", which means "yellow", and came into use due to the fact that the early representatives of this people had light ("yellow") hair.

The term "Kipchak" was first used after a serious civil war in the 7th century. among the Turkic tribes, when the loser nobility began to call herself "Kipchak" ("ill-fated"). The Polovtsians were called "Kumans" in Byzantine and Western European chronicles.

History of the people

The Polovtsians were an independent people for several centuries, but by the middle of the 13th century. became part of the Golden Horde and assimilated the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, passing on to them part of their culture and their language. Later, Tatar, Kazakh, Kumyk and many other languages ​​were formed on the basis of the Kypchan language (which was spoken by the Polovtsians).

The Polovtsi led a life typical of many nomadic peoples. Cattle breeding remained their main occupation. In addition, they were engaged in trade. A little later, the Polovtsians changed their nomadic way of life to a more sedentary one, certain land plots were assigned to certain parts of the tribe, where people could conduct their economy.

The Polovtsi were pagans, professed Tangerianism (worship of Tengri Khan, the eternal radiance of the sky), worshiped animals (in particular, the wolf was, in the understanding of the Polovtsians, their ancestor-totem). The tribes were inhabited by shamans who performed various rituals of worshiping nature and the earth.

Kievan Rus and Cumans

Polovtsians are very often mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles, and this is primarily due to their uneasy relationship with the Russians. From 1061 until 1210, the Polovtsian tribes constantly committed cruelty, robbed villages and tried to seize local territories. In addition to many small forays, there are about 46 major Polovtsian forays into Kievan Rus.

First major battle between the Polovtsians and the Russians took place on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, when the Polovtsian tribe raided Russian territories, burned several fields and robbed the villages located there. The Polovtsians quite often managed to defeat the Russian army. So, in 1068 they defeated the Russian army of the Yaroslavichs, and in 1078, during another battle with the Polovtsian tribes, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich died.

The troops of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh (who later led the all-Russian campaigns of Rus against the Polovtsy) and Rostislav during the battle in 1093 also fell from the hands of these nomads. In 1094, the Cumans reached the point where they forced Vladimir Monomakh to leave Chernigov. However, the Russian princes constantly collected retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsians, which sometimes ended quite successfully. In 1096 the Polovtsians suffered their first defeat in the struggle against Kievan Rus. In 1103 they were again defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Svyatopolk and Vladimir and were forced to leave the previously occupied territories and go to serve in the Caucasus to the local king.

Finally, the Polovtsians were defeated in 1111 by Vladimir Monomakh and the Russian army of many thousands, which undertook a crusade against their old opponents and invaders of Russian territories. To avoid the final ruin, the Polovtsian tribes were forced to leave back across the Danube and to Georgia (the tribe was divided). However, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Polovtsians were able to return again and began to repeat their early raids, but very quickly went over to the side of the Russian princes at war with each other and began to take part in the permanent ones on the territory of Russia, supporting one or another prince. They took part in the raids on Kiev.

Another major campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians, which was reported in the annals, took place in 1185. In the famous work "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" this event is called the battle with the Polovtsians. Igor's campaign, unfortunately, was unsuccessful. He failed to defeat the Polovtsians, but this battle was recorded in the annals. Some time after this event, the raids began to subside, the Polovtsians divided, some of them converted to Christianity and mixed with the local population.

End of the Polovtsian tribe

The once strong tribe, which caused a lot of inconvenience to the Russian princes, ceased to exist as an independent and independent people around the middle of the 13th century. The campaigns of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Batu led to the fact that the Polovtsians actually became part of the Golden Horde and (although they did not lose their culture, but, on the contrary, passed it on) ceased to be independent.