In the historical memory of the Kazakh people, perhaps the most deeply captured is the period of confrontation with the aggressive Dzungar Khanate - the state of the Western Mongols (Oirats), which existed for just over 120 years on the eastern and southeastern borders of modern Kazakhstan. It was this era - the 17th-18th centuries - that the Kazakhs called "zhaugershilik zamany" - a period of continuous wars with the Dzungars and other warlike neighbors.

Up to the present time, one can hear from the aksakals - connoisseurs of the past antiquity, historical stories or narratives in a poetic or various folklore genre, as a rule, having a real basis, about the feats of arms and deeds of one or another Kazakh batyr. Almost in every region of Kazakhstan there are names of tracts or localities that directly indicate the fierceness of the battles that took place in this area. Usually they are called by the local population “Kalmaқ Kyrgan” (the place of death of Kalmaks - the Turkic name of the Oirats, Dzhungars).

The difficult years of constant wars and mutual raids with enemies led to the formation of a single ethnic identity among the Kazakh clans and tribes. Actually, at this time, the internal consolidation of the Kazakh people takes place and the formation and consolidation of the territory of its original habitat is completed.

Danger from the east

The first invasions of the Oirats from the east into the territory of medieval Kazakhstan began at the end of the 14th century and took place repeatedly throughout the next century. Local Chinggisid rulers periodically met with them on the battlefield. In 1457, a large Oirat army led by Uz-Timur tayshi inflicted a severe defeat on the army of the Uzbek khan Abu-l-Khair under the walls of the ancient capital of Desht-i-Kipchak - Sygnak. Having plundered the towns of Syrdarya and the population living here, as well as having concluded a peace that was profitable for themselves, the Oirats victoriously went home.

During the reign of Khan Takhir (1520s) - a direct descendant of one of the founders of the dynasty of Kazakh khans Zhanibek - the Jatan fortress was built to repel Kalmak attacks. In the middle of the 16th century, there were several major military clashes between Kazakhs and Kalmaks. At the end of the sixteenth century, Tavakkul Khan, the son of Shigai, managed to subjugate part of the Kalmak tribes to his power and put his brother Shah Muhammad at the head of them. According to sources, then Tavakkul bore the title of khan of Kazakhs and Kalmaks. Since then, virtually every Kazakh ruler has waged endless wars with the restless Oirats.

At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries, some Oirat tribes were forced to migrate to the southwestern regions of the West Siberian lowland and the North Kazakh steppes, where they deliberately enter into prolonged armed conflicts with the Kazakh Khanate, make remote raids on the Nogai nomads, Central Asian cities. At first, the Kazakh khans managed to bring down the military onslaught of the Kalmak taishe-princes and even push back and subjugate separate scattered groups of the Western Mongols. The fighting between the Oirats and the Kazakhs took place, one might say, in a state of unstable equilibrium.

In the middle of the second decade of the 17th century. Kalmak tayshi, taking advantage of the fierce struggle between the Chinggisid nobility, made a number of attacks on the Kazakhs. This led to the short-term subordination of the Senior Kazakh zhuz and Tien Shan Kyrgyz to the Oirat ruler Dalai-Batur. Then, Yesim-khan (Ish-Muhammad), well-known among the Kazakhs and neighboring peoples, who had a respectful nickname "Yer boily er Yesim" (stately and brave Yesim), organized a number of successful campaigns against the Kalmaks, which led to a serious political crisis among the Oirat union and a migration a significant group of their tribes to Siberia and westward to the Nogai limits.

Plundering expeditions and raids are gradually turning into organized military campaigns, where the main goals are not only to obtain prey, livestock, prisoners of war and to subdue neighboring uluses, but also to seize pasture territories, establish control over trade routes and sedentary agricultural centers. The steadily long-term course of historical events in the Oirato-Kazakh relations of the late Middle Ages and the New Age led to the fact that the Kalmaks-Dzungars became a constant military-political threat for the Kazakhs in the geopolitical arena of Central Asia.

Dzungarian wolf prepares to jump

In the second quarter of the 17th century, after a long series of internal strife and civil strife among the Oirat nobility, the most important event in the history of the Western Mongols took place - the creation of the "last steppe empire" of the Central Asian nomads - the Dzungar Khanate. The rulers of the Oirat state of the Choros clan adopted a new title - huntaiji and set far-reaching foreign policy tasks to capture and subjugate neighboring countries and peoples. The entire internal policy of the Dzungar khans was aimed at creating a strong power based on the centralization of political control, deep modernization of the economy, which would serve the interests of the growing military economy and the army.

All this ultimately led to the formation of a pronounced militarized way of life of the Dzungarian nomads. After the seizure of the eastern Turkestan oases, the Dzungars were able to independently establish the technical process of mass production of weapons, including firearms (guns and guns). This fact in itself is very remarkable and, perhaps, is an isolated example in the history of the nomadic societies of this region.

In the Oirat Khanate, the decimal model of military organization, traditional for the nomads of Asia, has been preserved. The Dzungar army, in terms of its fighting qualities and military skill, was at the level of training of the regular troops of the neighboring powers of that time - Qing China and the Russian state. The Dzungar armed forces included both traditional cavalry units and capable infantry units equipped with hand-held firearms, which became a noticeable tactical advantage and made them resistant in field battles.

In the Dzungar army, strict military discipline was in effect, and special articles of the Oirat laws regulated the order of military service and the duties of both a simple soldier and a representative of the nobility. During mass mobilization, the number of the mobile Dzungar army could reach 100 thousand soldiers.

Zhangir vs. Batur

In 1635, the Dzungar Khan Batur, together with other Oirat tayshes, set out on a campaign against the Kazakhs, as a result of which Yesim's son, the young Sultan Zhangir, was captured, who spent some time in captivity with them. The largest battle between the Dzungars and Kazakhs took place in 1643.

At the end of the winter of this year, Batur-Khuntaiji with a 50,000-strong army moved to the Kazakh lands. A successful campaign at the beginning ended for the Dzungars with the complete defeat of their troops. The commander of the Kazakh detachment, numbering only 600 people, Zhangir effectively used new tactics of positional warfare against the enemy. Having built a defensive fortification in advance in a narrow mountain valley of the Dzhungarskiy Alatau on the Orbulak River, the Kazakh commander hid some of his soldiers in the amount of 300 people, armed with guns, in the redoubt. The other half of the squadron was comfortably and secretly positioned nearby in ambush.

The Dzungar troops, which had moved directly to the attack of the Kazakh fortress, were repulsed with great damage. The ambush detachment, commanded by Zhangir himself, unexpectedly struck a surprise attack on the enemy army from the rear. As a result of this bloody battle, the Dzungars lost 10 thousand killed soldiers. In the midst of the battle, a powerful reinforcement of 20 thousand soldiers, led by Zhalantos-bahadur, approached Zhangir, which finally predetermined the outcome of this fierce battle.

Batur-khuntaiji was forced to retreat. For victories and personal courage in the wars with the Dzungars, the Kazakhs named Zhangir "Salkam" (Impressive).

Despite this failure, in 1646 the Dzungars made a major invasion of the Kazakh nomads. Many prisoners were taken in the battles, including Zhangir's brother with his wife and children. After a while, a peace treaty was concluded between the Dzungars and the Kazakhs. The Prityanshan Kyrgyz, who acted in the Zhangir detachments, took an active part in the Dzungar-Kazakh wars of this period. The famous Kazakh commander died as befits a real batyr and the defender of his people in a single combat with the young Dzungarian baatur Galdam in 1652.

They only dreamed of peace

A new round of Dzungar-Kazakh military conflicts occurs at the end of the 17th century, when the son of Zhangir, the famous Tauke, became the khan of the Kazakhs. In the first half of the 1680s, the Oirat armies led by Galdan Boshoktu Khan invaded the territory of southern Kazakhstan three times. Of the 32 cities that belonged to the Kazakh khans and sultans, the Dzungars in this region managed to subjugate 9 most important urban centers to their power. The capital of the Kazakh Khanate, the city of Turkestan, which had a strong fortification system, was not captured by the enemy. After a while, the Kazakh rulers managed to regain their control again.

After the death of Galdan Boshoktu, the supreme power in Dzungaria passed into the hands of his nephew Tsewang-Rabdan. Under this Dzungar ruler, the wars with the Kazakhs continued continuously until his death. Finding a convenient political reason and pretext for an attack in 1698, the 40,000-strong army of Tsewang-Rabdan broke into the territory of the Senior Zhuz and advanced far west to the Chu and Talas rivers. In this campaign, several thousand people were killed and up to 10 thousand prisoners were taken into slavery.

After 4 years, the Kazakhs retaliated against Dzungaria for the attack in 1698. A new major Oirat invasion of the lands of the Elder Zhuz took place in 1708. Fleeing from defeat and extermination, large masses of refugees were forced to leave their ancestral pastures and hide behind the walls of Tashkent.

In 1710, a general congress of all three zhuzes was held in the Karakum Desert, at which the main issue of the Dzungar danger hanging over the Kazakhs was discussed. After heated discussions, the participants of the meeting finally agreed to convene a united Kazakh army, at the head of which was Bogembay-batyr from the Kanzhigala clan. As a sign of unity, those present even took a sacred blood oath. The achieved political unity immediately affected the military actions of the Kazakh militia, which managed to win a number of victories over the Dzungars.

Combat operations of the opposing sides took place with varying success. As soon as Tsewang-Rabdan managed to stabilize the strategic situation on the eastern and southwestern borders of the khanate, the Dzungarian cavalry rushed west, where in 1716 the Oirat army under the command of Tseren-Donduk defeated the Kazakh militia and captured a lot of prisoners. In retaliation for this, Kazakh detachments made a raid on the Choro nomad camps near the Ili River.

The largest battle between Kazakhs and Dzungars took place in 1717 in eastern Kazakhstan on the Ayaguz River. The initiative in this war came from the Kazakh side, which tried to deliver a preemptive strike against the Dzungars. The time of the campaign was chosen by the Kazakh generals very well.

In the same year, the second Qing-Dzungar war began, and the Oirat command deployed its main forces to repel the upcoming offensive of its formidable eastern neighbor. The 30-thousandth Kazakh army under the command of Kaip-khan and Abulkhair came across a Dzungar guard numbering a thousand soldiers. This small detachment was deployed as a border cover, the main task of which was to stop the Kazakhs before the strike units of the Oirat army approached. The stubborn battle continued throughout the day and ended in vain. During the night, the Dzungars built a protective rampart from trees and settled in the defense.

The Kazakhs did the same, which was a tactical mistake on their part. For two days there was an ineffectual exchange of fire from bows and rifles. On the third day, the reinforcements that approached the Dzungars dealt a concentrated "spear" blow to the location of the Kazakh army and achieved success. Probably, the unexpected appearance and decisive offensive of the Dzungarian armored detachment led the more numerous Kazakh army to an unfortunate defeat.

Heavy Seven Years

Taking advantage of the peace concluded with the Qing Empire, the Dzungar command began to rapidly transfer its troops westward to the eastern and southeastern borders of the Kazakh lands. Oirat commanders, having concentrated most of the troops, suddenly attacked in the early spring of 1723 the peaceful Kazakh nomad camps of the Senior and Middle Zhuzes. The end of winter and the beginning of spring is a difficult period in the life of Kazakhs, as this is the time for nomads to move to spring pastures.

The enemy attack was also facilitated by the fact that the Kazakh clans were scattered over a large area and could not provide the necessary rebuff to the enemy. A significant number of people died during the pursuit of the Dzungars and crossings over the overcrowded spring rivers Talas, Boroldai, Arys, Chirchik and others.

The Kazakhs of the Elder and part of the Middle Zhuz crossed the high-water Syrdarya and headed for Samarkand and Bukhara. The seven-year Dzhungar-Kazakh war of 1723-1730 went down in the history of the Kazakhs under the name of the Years of Great Calamity - "Aktaban Shұbyryndy".

The first stage of this war, designated as the period of military failures and defeats of the Kazakhs, dates back to 1723-1725. Poorly organized local outbursts of resistance provided by the Kazakh militias were suppressed by significantly superior enemy forces. The ancient capital of the Kazakh khans, sacred Turkestan, was captured by the Dzungars. The reasons for the defeats of the Kazakhs were associated with the socio-political state in which the Kazakh zhuzes were. The political fragmentation of the Kazakh khanates, an unstable military organization, and weak weapons in comparison with the Dzungars contributed to the success of the conquerors.

The impending danger forced the representatives of the three zhuzes to gather in 1726 in the area of ​​Orda-Basy (Main headquarters), located not far from Shymkent. At this meeting, it was decided to create a united army of all zhuzes. In 1727, the united Kazakh troops defeated the Dzungarian army on the Bulanty River, located in Central Kazakhstan. The second major military battle between the Dzungars and the Kazakhs took place in 1730 in the Anyrakai tract on the territory of the northwestern Semirechye (Zhetisu), in which the Kazakh militias managed to completely defeat the formidable enemy. In the Kazakh people's memory, this historical battle and the area where it took place were called "the place of the groans and sobbing of the Kalmaks." Despite the victory in the Anyrakay battle, the Kazakhs failed to finally resolve the "Dzungar issue". The concluded peace treaty restored the previous status quo.

Lost the campaign, but not the war

The first half of the 1730s was held in mutual minor skirmishes and collisions. Kazakh detachments periodically raided and plundered the nearby Oirat nomad camps. Oirats constantly kept strong security detachments and guards on their borders, fearing attacks from Kazakhs. Around 1735, the Dzungars again invaded the southern lands of the Kazakhs. The leaders of the Senior Zhuz were forced to recognize the Dzungarian domination.

In the spring of 1739, 24 thousand Oirat troops under the command of the commander Tseren-Dondoba invaded the territory of the Middle Zhuz in two shock columns. The rulers of the Middle and Younger zhuzes were completely unprepared to repel this aggression. In this campaign, the Dzungars suffered a lot of several Kazakh clans: Kanzhigals, Karauyl, Uak, Kirei, etc., in addition, 50 thousand sheep were captured and stolen.

In 1739-1740, the Dzungars undertook a second attack on the Kazakhs. Two army groups set out on the campaign: the northern one, under the command of the commander Septen, moved along the Ishim and Tobol rivers, the southern group of Oirat troops, led by Noyon Sary Manji, raided the Syr Darya lands. The total number of advancing troops reached 30-35 thousand people.

The strategic plan of the Dzungar commanders was to cut off the Kazakhs in the south from Central Asia, and in the north from the line of Russian fortresses. Surrounded in a giant ring in the center of the steppes, the Kazakh rulers and their uluses, according to the plans of the Oirat strategists, had to surrender at the mercy of the victors. Kazakh nomad camps, covered by the enemy from both sides, abandoning cattle and property, went towards the Urals and the Syr Darya. The heroic and selfless struggle of the Kazakh warriors and the severe snowy winter did not allow the Dzungars to defeat and subjugate the Middle Zhuz.

The third Dzungar campaign took place in the second half of 1740. The military leaders of the Kazakh army conducted combat training in advance and rendered a decisive and organized rebuff to the enemy. Stubborn battles continued until the beginning of the next year, until at the end of February the Oirats moved a 30,000-strong army led by the commander Septen and the son of Galdan-Tseren Lama-Dorzhi.

The Dzungar detachments advanced in three important directions: the first group marched along the Yesil bank, the second - from Tashkent and the third - from Turkestan. A massive blow by enemy troops forced the Khan of the Middle Zhuz Abulmambet to retreat with his people to the Ilek and Ural rivers. Many Kazakh nomads were completely destroyed, and cattle and people were driven to Dzungaria. The future khan, Sultan Abylai, who commanded a reconnaissance detachment, was also captured.

Despite this, the Kazakh sarbazes managed to thwart another plan and even defeat the right wing of the Dzungarian army and defeat the Septen ulus. In May 1741, the three-year war was over. Thus, multiple attempts by the Dzungars to capture the Middle Zhuz and destroy the main military forces of the Kazakhs ended in complete failure.

Chinese point

The dramatic events of 1739-1741 were the last big war in an uninterrupted chain of Dzungar-Kazakh armed conflicts of the 17th-18th centuries. After the death of Galdan-Tseren, which followed in September 1745, a gradual decline in the military-political power of the Dzungar Khanate began, aggravated by inter-elite conflicts and dynastic power struggles within the Oirat elite. Kazakh rulers took the most direct part in these strife and conflicts, objectively contributing to the destabilization of the political situation in Dzungaria. The weakened Dzungar Khanate was defeated and completely destroyed by the Qing troops in 1755-1758. In turn, the Kazakh zhuzes began to gradually enter the sphere of the military-political and geo-economic interests of the Russian Empire.

During the fierce Dzungar wars, the Kazakhs managed to rally and stop the strong Dzungar military machine and defend their ethnic territory. In crisis periods of history, when there was a real threat to the existence of the integrity of the ethnos, united armed forces were created to fight the enemy.

In the course of the Dzungar wars, there is a steady process of raising the social status of the most active part of the Kazakh elite: the batyrs are especially noticeable, whose political influence is growing from year to year. And the memory of them among the people is alive to this day.

The Dzungar-Kazakh wars contributed to the growth of the military-political influence in Central Asia of the powerful imperial powers - Qing China and the Russian Empire, which led to the loss of the political independence of these two large nomadic peoples. The rather complicated Dzungar-Kazakh relations indirectly contributed to geopolitical changes in this vast region and the emergence of the main contours of the modern southeastern Kazakh-Chinese border.

The mystery of the battle site

believes that “there are no less white spots in Kazakh history than black holes in astronomy”. One of these white spots of the 17th century is the so-called Orbulak battle. Although a certain fact about her has survived, some points still remain controversial and unobvious.

The biggest mystery for historians and history buffs is where the battle took place. Contemporaries called it Orbulak, after the name of the Orbulak river flowing in the Belzhailyau gorge between the Altyn-Emel and Dzhungarskiy Alatau ranges.

In archival documents, it has no geographical identification and appears as a kind of battle in which six hundred Kazakh soldiers defeated the 50,000-strong army of the Dzungars.

What is now called the site of the Orbulak battle is the Belzhailyau gorge, formerly known as the Uigentas pass. Chokan Valikhanov also used this passage several times when traveling from Semipalatinsk to Kuldja, ”says Murat Uali. - The gorge connects the Northern Balkhash region and the Ili valley, has a difficult rugged terrain and is difficult to pass for road transport.

About five years ago, Murat Uali, together with Maral Tompiev, drove through this gorge in a jeep, they described it in their articles and their book “The Era of Acquiring Borders”.

The Belzhailau gorge is narrow and long. In the very middle of it there is a high hill located across the gorge, which resembles an embankment dam. From the east (Ili valley) it has a gentle slope, and from the west (Balkhash region) it is steep. This is the perfect spot for an ambush. If you dig trenches along the top of the hill and plant the shooters, then the entire western part of the slope and the hollow in front of the hill are visible at a glance and are perfectly shot. There is a granite stone on this hill, it was erected in 1993 in honor of the 350th anniversary of the battle. There are written the names of some batyrs and Zhangir-khan who participated in the battle.

But many historians doubt that such a major battle could have taken place in the Dzhungar Alatau.

According to most historians, by the middle of the 17th century, the territory of Zhetysu was in the hands of Dzungaria. The penetration of a small detachment of Zhangir's warriors deep into enemy territory is theoretically possible, but the participation of another 20 thousand Yalantush soldiers in the battle casts doubt on the place of the battle in Belzhailau. Why should the huge army of the Samarkand Emir overcome about 900 kilometers from the border of the Bukhara Khanate to Belzhailau? The mystery of the battle between the Dzungarian Erdeni Batur and the Kazakh Zhangir Sultan (who later became a khan) is that no one knows exactly where it took place geographically.

If you insert the feet of reason into the stirrups of logic, then the assumption suggests itself that the most likely place is close to the border of the Kazakh Khanate, Bukhara Khanate and Dzungaria. In those years, such a mountainous area was the Zhetyzhol ridge and further the Kindiktas mountains, in which there are 5 passes of varying degrees of difficulty, in particular, Kastek, Kordai, Shokpar. But now they no longer have the same profile as in the 17th century. As you know, there is a highway through Kordai, and Turksib passes through Shokpar.

The Dzungarian khuntaiji Erdeni Batur, through one of these passes, could have tried to cross into the Chu valley, but was stopped by the “special forces” of Zhangir-sultan.

According to Murat Uali, after their trips to Orbulak, they were called by “black” archaeologists who consulted about the route, the site of the battle, went there with metal detectors, examined the surroundings with their instruments, but found nothing there. Except for a few bullets and arrowheads. The lack of material evidence can also be counted as circumstantial evidence that the battle took place somewhere else.

Fear has big eyes?

Murat Uali called the Zhangir warriors “special forces”. Being in the minority (it is believed that there were 600 people), they were able to stop the 50-thousand army of the Dzungars. 50 thousand (this is the population of the city of Talgar - a satellite of Almaty) by the standards of that time - a huge amount of human resources. The researcher assumes that an incident occurred during the calculations, which made the figures greatly overestimated.

Even in the well-known documented battles between the Chinese and the Dzungars, which were in the east of Dzungaria, the latter fielded no more than 30 thousand soldiers. For the Dzungars, it was the Chinese front that was the main one, the most bloody battles were fought there, it was there that the question of the life and death of Dzungaria was resolved. For the Manchu empire, the Qing Dzungaria was like a thorn in the buttock - not fatal, but it interferes with sitting. Therefore, the Chinese bogdyhans tried to pull out this splinter. And only Qianlong succeeded in 1758.

Speaking about the size of the Dzungar army, it can be assumed that this is a misinterpretation of the word "tumen" by Russian ambassadors.

If at the time of Genghis Khan this military unit numbered 10 thousand soldiers, then by the time in question they began to call just an independent detachment a tumen. I think there were at most 2-3 thousand people in such a detachment. In this raid, Batur-khuntaiji invited his relatives to participate - the younger brother Chokur, the sons-in-law of Ablai and Ochirtu, a certain Koyu-sultan and the son of the neighboring Altan-khan Ombo. Each of them, apparently, participated with his own detachment - tumen.

Most likely, the Russian ambassadors, considering that tumen are 10 thousand, multiplied by five detachments, and so they received 50 thousand Dzungar soldiers. Moreover, they received this data from the prisoners brought from the campaign. The Dzungars themselves would never say how many troops they have. After all, the number of soldiers has always been the biggest secret for the enemy.

Another moment - the mercantile interest of the warriors... The more soldiers participate in the campaign, the greater the number of loot will have to be divided. And what to take from the nomadic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz besides sheep and horses? What is the point of warriors risking their lives if they do not get a decent prey? Why are there so many warriors in an ordinary raid on peaceful nomad camps? And if each warrior in the campaign had three horses, that's 150 thousand horses! How to feed them in the desert Balkhash steppes? All these questions raise doubts about the indicated number of the Dzungar army. I think more the real number of soldiers is 10-15 thousand people.

Family ties

However, myself the fact of the victorious battle in 1643 between the Kazakhs and the Dzungars is beyond doubt.

There is a document, cited in the ten-volume History of Kazakhstan in Russian Sources, which is called “Unsubscribe from the Tobolsk governor Kurakin to the Siberian Prikaz,” says Uali. - In February 1643, Tobolsk servicemen, Grishka Ilyin and Kochimberdy Kucheev, were sent from Tobolsk to the Dzungarian Erdeni Batur-Khuntaiji in South Tarbagatai as ambassadors. But they did not find him, he had already gone on this campaign. The ambassadors had been waiting for the return of the huntaiji for more than four months. He returned from this trip at the end of June. He drove, as the ambassadors write, about 10 thousand prisoners - "Alatau and Tokmak Kirghiz". From the words of these prisoners, the details of the battle are known. Based on the report of the ambassadors, the Siberian voivode Grigory Kurakin wrote his "formal reply" to the Siberian order in 1644. Thus, the fact of the battle is documented. Unfortunately, Ilyin and Kucheev do not indicate the place of the battle.

It is believed that Zhangir was informed in advance about the approaching army of the Dzungars; this knowledge, coupled with his leadership talent, helped the Kazakhs eventually emerge victorious in the Orbulak battle.

In 1635 Zhangir Sultan was captured by Kalmyk taiji Khundulen and stayed with him for several years.

According to various indirect data, it can be assumed that a romantic story happened in Zhangir's captivity. Either the daughter or the granddaughter of this Khundulen fell in love with the Kazakh sultan and helped him escape. From her later Tauke Khan was born.

In principle, it was beneficial for Khundulen that Chingizid became his relative. He was a rival and opponent of Erdeni Batur. The young and promising Kazakh sultan could become an ally in the struggle with Erdeni Batur for power. When Batur-Khuntaiji went to the Kazakhs and Kirghiz, he called Khundulen with him, but he refused. He did not want to fight with his son-in-law, moreover, it was he who warned him about the impending campaign. Because of this, a quarrel occurred between Batur and Hundulen. Batur was offended and wanted to punish Hundulen, but he failed. This is also found in Russian documents.

The Orbulak battle was the first in which Kazakh soldiers massively used firearms.

I think it was not without outside influence, perhaps, one of the Yaik Cossacks could have fallen into Kazakh captivity and subsequently become a comrade-in-arms, adviser to Zhangir and prompt about firearms. Sami guns could get to Zhangir due to family ties. One of his daughters was the wife of the heir to the Bukhara Emir. This could give him access to the Bukhara and Samarkand arms markets. So, using the interweaving of family and friendly ties, Zhangir-Sultan creates an anti-Dzhungar coalition, buys myltyk (gun), lead, gunpowder in the markets of Samarkand and Bukhara, and from the personal guard - nukers and batyrs - forms a detachment of "special forces", armed with the most modern that time with weapons - match guns.

What happened after?

What did this victory give Zhangir and his descendants?

This is one of the first Kazakh-Dzhungar battles in which the Kazakhs won. It is put on the shield by Kazakh historians, lovers of antiquity, patriots as a great victory of the Kazakhs over the Dzungars. It may have been militarily great, but not politically decisive. Despite the local defeat of Erdeni Batur, Zhetysu was conquered by the Dzungars. How a similar battle at Thermopylae and the feat of 300 Spartans did not save Greece from the Persian conquest.

The meaning of the Orbulak battle is different. Zhangir Sultan demonstrated the effectiveness of the new combat tactics of volley fire from rifles by foot shooters. For Central Asia, this was a revolutionary experience in the use of firearms.

In addition, representatives of the three Kazakh zhuzes and Kirghiz gained a successful combat experience of unification. Zhangir later became Khan and received the nickname Salkam - Furious, but in 1652 he was killed in a duel (zhekpe zhek) by seventeen-year-old Hoshout Galdamba, the son of Ochirtu-taiji. Unfortunately, Zhangir's reform activities did not receive a worthy continuation in the Kazakh Khanate (or he did not have time to implement his plans). Specific Kazakh weapons - shokpar (various types of clubs) and aybalta (hatchets) - were in service with the batyrs for a long time. And horse campaigns and horse attack in loose formation remained the main tactical methods of the offensive until the 20th century.

But the Dzungars, having received a cruel lesson from Zhangir-Sultan, made far-reaching conclusions. But this is a topic for another story.

The duration of the Kazakh-Dzhungar conflict totals a total of 257 years, of which 123 years fall on the time of continuous struggle. According to the surviving sources, episodic hostilities with alternating success between the Oirats (Dzungars) and Kazakhs began to take place in the second half of the 15th century. The incentive for the invasion of both sides was forced profit making. At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, pressure from the Dzungarian nomads began to intensify. The Kazakh rulers managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Oirats and establish temporary political control over some tribes.

Deterioration of Kazakh-Dzhungar relations at the beginning of the 17th century

Due to the numerous white spots in history, it is not possible to determine the exact dates of the beginning and end of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war. According to some reports, the Dzungars made one of the first serious campaigns to Central Asia and the lands of Kazakhstan in 1599-1605 with an attack on Khorezm. The subsequent failure did not stop the belligerent tribes, and soon the Elder Zhuz was subordinate to them. Under these conditions, part of the Kyrgyz and Kazakh rulers were forced to admit their dependence on the Oirat feudal lords.

It should be noted that, on the one hand, the heavy internal political struggle of the region played a significant role in the loss of the Kazakhs, on the other hand, the complication of relations between the khans Yesim and Imamkuli (Bukhara Khanate). Therefore, they could not offer worthy resistance. But in the late 1920s, Khan Yesim managed to inflict serious defeats on the Oirats and force them to peace. In the next few years, the preponderance of forces was invariably on the side of the Kazakhs.

The 30s of the 17th century are marked by the beginning of a new stage in Kazakh-Dzhungar relations. A group of Dzungar tribes (Choros, Khoyts, Derbets), led by Khara-Khula, and later by his son Batur, begin open opposition to the Kazakh Khanate in the east.

Causes of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war

The formation of the Dzungar state (1635) and the victories of the Oirat troops in Mongolia, Kazakhstan and East Turkestan raise the authority of Batur and make it an important political center in Central Asia. After 1640, the focus of the foreign policy of the united Oirat tribes was in a special way directed towards the Kazakh steppes.

The main reasons for the wars of conquest by the Oirats on the territory of Kazakhstan:

1. Control of trade routes connecting Dzungaria with Russia and the Central Asian states.
2. Expansion and strengthening of the northern borders of the khanate.
3. Endless rangelands.
4. Increase in the taxable population.
5. Trade and craft cents
6. Slave trade.

The years of the Kazakh-Dzhungar wars in some publications are often presented as bloody and harsh, and the Kazakhs and Dzungars are presented as sworn enemies. But in fairness, it should be noted that the relationship between them was not always in a state of confrontation. There were periods of peaceful and friendly coexistence of these peoples, when mutually beneficial trade was conducted and marriages were concluded. Dzungarian ancestors can be found in the family tree of many Kazakhs.

The first battles

The first battles of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war were extremely unsuccessful for the Kazakhs. The fragile central government, tribal and tribal fragmentation, weak economic ties, the desire of the feudal lords for independence. While the Dzungars acted more efficiently: a relatively high degree of development of statehood, a ramified numerous apparatus, material and human resources.

The enterprising and energetic Dzhangir (the son of the Kazakh khan Yesim) tried to lead the fight against the invaders (1635), but was defeated and was taken prisoner. Freed a year later, he concludes an alliance with the Kyrgyz and becomes one of the most implacable opponents of the Oirats. The entire history of his reign is marked by the struggle against enemy occupation.

Orbulak battle

In the winter of 1643, a handful of Kazakhs led by Dzhangir put up a powerful resistance to the 50,000-strong army of the Dzungars led by Batur. According to written sources, the military detachment of the Kazakh Khan, numbering 600 people, was divided into two groups, 300 dzhigits took over the main attack of the enemy cavalry, the other 300, along with the khan, were in ambush.

The terrain and firearms gave an advantage to the Jangir fighters, the Oirats were subjected to massive shelling and disorientated in the situation, which had a psychological effect on their military spirit. Soon reinforcements approached the Kazakhs - a 20-thousand-strong army of the Kirghiz. The enemies were defeated. The Dzungar Khan undertook the next campaign against the Kazakhs in 1646, but despite the expected massacre, peace negotiations took place in it.

In the course of further constant clashes, the Dzungars managed to secure a small part of Semirechye, which marked the beginning of the territorial seizure of Kazakhstani lands.

From raids to conquests

The formation of the Dzungar Khanate led to a significant increase in pressure on the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz. Ordinary predatory raids were replaced by territorial seizures of the lands of Kazakhstan. The uncoordinated actions of the Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Bukhara rulers allowed the enemy to usurp a number of Kazakh uluses (possessions).

In the early 1680s, the Dzungarian Khan Galdan (son of Batur) with a large army undertook a large-scale invasion of South Kazakhstan and Semirechye. As documents show, as a result of the battles, nine cities were captured. And in 1698, Tsewang Rabdan (Galdan's nephew), becoming the head of the 40-thousandth army, made a devastating campaign against the nomadic camps of the Senior Zhuz.

By the nature of the invasion of this period of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war, they were fundamentally different from all previous ones. The invaders tried to gain a foothold in the lands of Kazakhstan and Central Asia and collect tribute from the cities.

Unification kurultai

The Dzungar invasions began to increasingly threaten the independent existence of Kazakhstan. In the face of danger, Kazakh feudal lords tried on for a while and began to look for ways to protect themselves from a common enemy. In 1710, a unifying kurultai (congress) was held in the Karakum Desert, where representatives of the three zhuzes decided the main issue: to rise to fight the enemy or ask for peace. The inspirational speech of Bogenbai-batyr sparked hope among those present, and they took an oath to protect their lands and each other to the last drop of blood. It was decided to form a people's militia.

The congress held by the Kazakhs played a huge role in the war with Dzungaria: the role of the masses and outstanding batyrs is growing. Until 1718, the Kazakh Khanate manages to restrain the onslaught of the conquerors.

A separate point is worth noting the true heroes of the participants in the Kazakh-Dzhungar war, about whom the people will later compose legends, songs and poems: Kanjygaly Bogenbai, Shakshak Zhanibek, Bayan Batyr, Karakerey Kabanbai, Shapyrashty Nauryzbai, Alban Raiymbek and many others.

Defeat at Ayaguz

In documentary evidence there is a mention of another battle of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war, but due to the scarcity of information, historians were able to come to a consensus about the complete picture of this clash. It is known that in 1717, 30 thousand Kazakh militias entered into a three-day battle with a small detachment of Dzungars near the Ayaguz River, for the control of Sary-Arka and Priirtyshye. Despite the numerical superiority, the Kazakh army was caught in the bend of the river between two enemy detachments and suffered heavy losses.

Analyzing this battle, the researchers summarize that the wrong tactics of the battle, the uncoordinated actions of the commanders, the fragmentation and carelessness of the commanders themselves led to the inglorious defeat of the militias of Kazakhstan.

The years of great tribulation (1723-1727)

In the spring of 1723, after the conclusion of an armistice with the Qing Empire, the Oirat feudal lords with renewed vigor attacked Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The first under attack were the Zhetysu and Irtysh regions. The adversaries chose the moment when the Kazakhs were still in their winter camps and could not organize proper resistance. The Dzungar invaders, sweeping away every obstacle on their way, quickly advanced inland. They did not spare anyone, leaving behind them devastation, fires and heaps of dead bodies. Leaving their property and livestock, people were forced to flee to the west and to the Central Asian khanates.

The Kazakh-Dzhungar war of this period greatly paralyzed the economic life of Central Asia: trampled crops, numerous refugees, devastated cities (Fergana, Bukhara, Samarkand) and villages. But the hard time did not break the will of the people, who found the strength to organize resistance, stop and expel the enemy occupiers from their native land.

Bulantinskoe battle

The result of the congress held by representatives of the Kazakh zhuzes in 1726 was the organization of a unified people's militia under the command of Abulkhair, Khan of the Younger Zhuz. The strategically set goal was the liberation of the north-eastern regions of Kazakhstan. The allied detachments of the Karakalpaks and Kirghiz came to the aid of the militias.

In 1727 (in some sources, 1728), a significant battle took place in the interfluve of the Bulanty and Bileuta rivers, in the vicinity of the Alatau mountains. Kazakh detachments, having lured the enemy deep into the steppe, dramatically changed the course of the battle. Turning around, they launched a counterattack and struck a series of crushing blows, which put the invaders to flight. On rough terrain, the remnants of the enemy army were defeated. This is one of the battles of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war, which played an important role in history.

The victory at the Bulanty River strengthened the morale of the Kazakhs and dispelled the myth of the invincibility of the enemy.

Anrakay decisive battle

In December 1729, in the southeast of Lake Balkhash, the key battle of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war of the 17-18 centuries took place, which determined the further fate of Kazakhstan. At stake were large territories of Kazakh lands: the Syrdarya region, Arys, Alatau, Sarysu, Talas, Chu, and the northern Balkhash region.

Military operations of the warring parties were stretched for 200 kilometers and lasted for 40 days, representing the clashes of individual units, countless fights and interception of the same strategic places. During the battles, the Dzungars were driven out to the Anrakai mountains, where the final battle took place. The Dzungar army was defeated.

Despite the resounding victory, the renewed internal strife of the Kazakh feudal lords with renewed vigor weakened the people's militia. The Oirat army managed to carry out a number of raids from 1739 to 1741, until the struggle for the throne and power in Dzungaria itself began. And in 1758, due to the invasion of the Qing army (1755), the once mighty empire of the Dzungars lay in ruins.

The role of Russia between the "steppe wolves"

Until the end of the 17th century, Moscow perceived Dzungaria as a potential enemy and was looking for supporters among the Central Asian khans. But after the emerging threat in the Far East from the Manchurian conquerors, Russia begins to consider Dzungaria as a potential ally, entering into trade relations and deals with it. External neutrality does not prevent it from receiving benefits and replenishing the treasury with imperials from the Kazakh-Dzhungar war.

Thus, the position of the Russian state in relation to the two nomadic peoples was not consistent and contradictory. On the one hand, she was interested in the existence of the Oirat state as a counterbalance to the Qing Empire, on the other, she feared the strengthening of the Dzungars at the expense of the conquest or absorption of the Kazakhs. Acceptance of Russian citizenship by some Kazakh rulers determines the further political course of Russia in the steppe.

Results of the Kazakh-Dzhungar war

By the middle of the 18th century, it lost its influence in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. His position in the external political arena, as well as internal affairs, began to deteriorate.

By 1746, the Elder Zhuz, having overthrown the burden of taxes from the Oirat feudal lords, was helping the Central Asian militias in the fight against the Oirat terror. Losing their positions in the conquered spaces, the Oirats developed a stormy diplomatic activity in order to obtain military support from the Kazakh rulers of the Younger and in clashes with Kokand. But no amount of pressure and intimidation changed the situation. Wars with the Kokand Bekstvo and subsequent defeats significantly undermined the forces of Dzungaria and contributed to the fall of this state.

There is no reason to judge who won the Kazakh-Dzhungar war. Defending their land, the Kazakh people, along with the Kyrgyz, Uzbeks and Karakalpaks, fought a hard liberation struggle for freedom and independence.

Aggravation of Kazakh-Dzungarian relations in the 17-18 centuries.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. The greatest threat to the Kazakhs was from the Dzungar Khanate, which in the 1920s reached the greatest consolidation of its military potential and political weight in the Central Asian region. The existence of Dzungaria, as a strong state in the immediate vicinity of the borders of Kazakhstan, posed a real threat not only to the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Altai peoples and others, but also to Russia, whose economic and political interests in the zone of Altai mining enterprises were prompted as a government, and the Siberian administration to take vigorous countermeasures against the far-reaching aspirations of the huntaisha Tsevan-Rabdan. The strategic goal of the Dzungar rulers was clear - the subordination of the vast expanses of Kazakhstan to their power. The devastating invasions of Kalmyk troops, which have become more frequent since the 40s of the 17th century, took on a fierce character of constant confrontation at the end of the 17th century in connection with the accession of Tsevan-Rabdan to the Dzungarian throne, the first major foreign policy act of which was the resumption of the bloody war with the Kazakh Khanate.

The campaigns of the Dzungarian troops in 1710, 1715, 1717, 1718, 1719 showed the perniciousness of tribal strife, intrafeudal strife in the face of an aggressive threat that was growing from year to year. In addition, militarily, the Dzungar Khanate represented a serious force for Russia, especially for the Kazakh clans. Unlike some Asian peoples who had "bow fight", the Dzungar army was armed with it at the end of the 17th century. there was a firearm with a wick. The presence of artillery among the Dzungars put them in a more advantageous position. In addition, the Dzungars had a huge army at that time. The armament of the Kazakhs was significantly inferior to the Dzungars: it consisted mainly of bows, sabers, spears, only an insignificant part of the sarbaz were armed with match guns, the destructive power of which was not great.

Political instability in the Kazakh zhuzes encouraged aggressive actions by external enemies. The invasion of the Dzungar troops of 1711-1717 undermined the forces of the Kazakhs. Using their military superiority, the Dzungarian troops temporarily occupied a part of Zhetysu, their advanced conspirations reached the river. Sarysu in Central Kazakhstan. The consequences of the Dzungar invasions prompted the famous elders, biys, folk batyrs, the most far-sighted Chingizids to make efforts to unite the military-human potential of the three zhuzes. The first kurultai (people's meeting of nomads) took place in the summer of 1710 in the Karakum region. It was decided to create an all-Kazakh militia headed by a prominent national batyr Bogenbai. Awareness of the real threat hanging over Kazakhstan bore the first fruits - in 1711 the military forces of the three zhuzes repulsed the enemy. The Dzungars retreated to the east. And the next year, Kazakh troops invaded the Dzungar Khanate. The retaliatory campaign of the Dzungarian huntaysh in 1713 ended in failure. But the first fruits of the joint struggle were not consolidated. Taking advantage of the disagreement among the rulers of the three zhuzes (only in the Middle Zhuz there were three khans: Bolat, Semen, Abulmambet), in 1714 the Dzungars repeated their sudden invasion of Kazakhstan. The country found itself in a difficult situation. Even the decisive actions of the Kazakh militia in the spring of 1718 in the area of ​​the river. Ayaguz, under the leadership of the famous batyrs Kara Kerey Kabanbai and Shakantai (Zhaugashar), could not correct the difficult situation in which the Middle Zhuz found itself.

The situation was aggravated not only by the Dzungarian aggression. Bashkirs attacked from the northwest, Siberian Cossacks from the north, and co-religionists, the Uzbek khanates, who were trying to seize part of the Senior Zhuz, often bothered from the south. However, the greatest danger was posed by Dzungaria, whose frequent invasions of the Kazakh lands in the early 20s of the 18th century. took on rampant proportions.

Dzungaria's formidable neighbor to the east, the Qing Empire, was waiting for a favorable situation to achieve the long-cherished goal of eliminating Dzungaria as an independent state.

3. Years of great tribulation. The outcome of the centuries-old struggle of the Kazakh people with the Dzungarian conquests

In 1722, after the death of the Qing bogdykhan Kangxi (Yun-chzhen), who had fought with the Oirats for a long time, there was a certain calm on the border with China, which made it possible for Tsevan-Rabdan to unleash his might on the Kazakhs. The aggression of the Dzungar Khanate, called in the history of the Kazakh people the "Years of the Great Calamity" (Aktaban shubyryndy), brought suffering, hunger, destruction of material values, caused irreparable damage to the development of productive forces: thousands of men, women and children were taken prisoner. The Kazakh clans, having paid dearly for the carelessness of their sultans and khans, were forced to leave their homes for centuries under the pressure of the Dzungar troops, which entailed the migration of a part of the Kazakhs of the Middle Zhuz to the borders of the Central Asian khanates. Many clans of the Elder Zhuz also retreated to the Syrdarya, crossed it and headed towards Khujand. The Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz migrated along the rivers Yaik, Ori, Yrgyz to the borders of Russia. Fighting incessantly, part of the Kazakhs of the Middle Zhuz approached the Tobolsk province.

The "Years of the Great Calamity" (1723-1727) in their destructive consequences are comparable only to the Mongol invasion of the early 13th century.

The Dzungar aggression significantly influenced the international situation in Central Asia. The approach of a thousand families to the borders of Central Asia and the possessions of the Volga Kalmyks aggravated relations in the region. Cossacks, Karakalpaks, Uzbeks, attacking exhausted Kazakhs, aggravated their already critical situation. During these years, Zhetysu suffered especially.

The tragedy became possible not only as a result of the suddenness of hostilities by the Oirat forces. It was due to the lack of political unity in Kazakh society during the most difficult period in the history of Kazakhstan. Even at a time when the Kalmyks were ravaging peaceful auls that did not have time to migrate to the east, the Chingizids continued their "craft" - they were at enmity with each other. At this critical moment, the people themselves took on the task of saving the country, nominating from among their midst the major leaders of the people's militia: Kara Kerey Kabanbai, Shakshak Zha-nibek, Nauryzbai, Bukenbai, Malaysary, Bayan, Yeset, Raiymbek, Shakantai and others. wrestling Kazdauysty Kazybek, Aiteke biy, Tolebiy played an outstanding role in uniting the efforts of the Kazakh clans in this critical period.

Building on their successes, in 1725 the Dzungars captured Turkestan and Tashkent. The traditional caravan trade in the region suffered significant damage. Again, as in the beginning of the 18th century, the main burden in organizing the enemy's resistance was sculpted by the national batyrs Bogenbai from the Kanzhigaly clan and Kabanbai from the Karakerei clan, whose glorious deeds were widely known among the nomads, partly promoted by the steppe improvisers. The successful actions of the combined forces of the three zhuzes began to give their results starting in 1726. If earlier the Kazakh militia acted separately, gathering in detachments mainly on the basis of generic characteristics, then since the mid-20s of the 18th century. Kazakh batyrs acted together, coordinating their military plans over the vast steppe zone.

In 1726, in the middle reaches of the river. Sarysu, at the confluence of the river. Bulanty, the Kazakh united army inflicted a tangible defeat on the Dzungar forces. This was the first major victory of the Kazakh people in a long, exhausting confrontation with the Dzungar Khanate. The place of the battle was preserved for a long time in the people's memory and was named "the place of the death of the Kalmyks" (Kalmak kyrylgan), which reflected the significance of the defeat of the Dzungar forces. In the autumn of the same year, the Kazakh rulers Abulkhair, Semeke and other prominent sultans with a 10,000-strong army, attacking the Volga Kalmyks, who so often disturbed the western borders of the Kazakh Khanate, forced them to retreat. However, the unfavorable situation for the Kazakhs, caused primarily by the danger of being drawn into a protracted struggle with the Volga Kalmyks who were in Russian citizenship, forced the Kazakhs to agree to a truce with them in order to secure their western borders in the context of the ongoing struggle with the most dangerous enemy in the east - the Dzungar Khanate. ... The importance of the victory of 1726 and the subsequent successful military actions of the Kazakh army in strengthening the morale of the people was great. In the minds of the masses, the opinion is being affirmed about the need to unite the forces of the three Kazakh zhuzes - the main factor in ensuring the territorial integrity of the Kazakh state.

With the consent of prominent sultans and well-known generals, the general command of the combined forces of the khanate was entrusted to Khan Abulkhair, whose military leadership won him the recognition of most of the nomads. In addition, Abulkhair Khan, as the organizer of the people's struggle against foreign invaders and as a far-sighted politician, enjoyed a well-deserved prestige among the most influential Chingizids, as well as popular batyrs. At the same time, such an important circumstance played an important role that it was Abulkhair Khan who enjoyed great confidence in neighboring Russia, which, having crushed such a strong country like Sweden, exerted an ever-increasing influence on the course of international relations and whose growing authority caused concern to the Dzungar rulers.

However, in the 20s of the XVIII century. the political situation was not yet favorable for the adoption of Russian citizenship. The Dzungar-Kazakh confrontation continued, having a significant impact on international relations in Central Asia. In these conditions, the task of liberating the territory of Kazakhstan temporarily occupied by Dzungaria, in particular Semirechye, was increasingly put forward. The concentration of the main forces of the Kazakhs in the region of the Ordabasy mountains was not accidental. From here it was more convenient to reach the border areas with Dzungaria and begin the liberation of Semirechye. The originality of the terrain allowed the Kazakh batyrs, unnoticed by the Dzungarian scouts, to concentrate a huge number of armed people in this area and to locate auls that supplied the army with everything necessary. The main places of concentration of Kazakh detachments have been preserved in toponymic names along the Boroldai and Koshkar-ata rivers: the settlements of the Big Horde and the Small Horde, the Abulkhair Khan gorge. Judging by the folklore data that have come down to us, the Kazakh army was organized and dispersed in this area according to the principle of belonging to the zhuz.

The bloodiest battle with the Dzungars took place in the spring of 1729 in the Anrakai area, in the south of Lake Balkhash, where the Kazakh militia defeated the Dzungar army. In folk legends, this place is called "the place of the enemy's groans and sobs." The political opponent of Abulkhair Khan Barak Sultan, the Khan of the Middle Zhuz Abulmambet, and the clan divisions of the Senior Zhuz headed by Bolat Khan took part in the battle. For the first time, the rulers of the three zhuzes, discarding intergeneric differences, acted as a united front. The victory was impressive. The defeated army of conquerors began to retreat along the river. Or east. But at this time, the leaders of the Kazakh militia units, in connection with the sudden death of Bolat Khan, quarreled over which of them should be the senior khan in the three Kazakh zhuzes. The commander-in-chief of the combined forces Abulkhair and the owner of the Middle Zhuz Semeke left the battle area. These disagreements among the batyrs, sultans and other large feudal lords responsible for the fate of the country facilitated the actions of the Dzungars and nullified the achieved results and numerous victims of the people in the fight against the invaders, endangering the independence of the Kazakh zhuzes.

Abulkhair Khan with the units of the Younger Zhuz subordinate to him retreated to the borders of Russia. A significant part of the Middle Zhuz migrated to the north, a part of the Senior Zhuz, which was most under pressure from the Dzungar forces, was pressed against the Syr Darya and was forced to temporarily submit to the Dzungars. The nationwide struggle, having achieved significant successes due to the disagreements that had become traditional, turned out to be weakened, although the territorial integrity of the state was preserved by the efforts of the masses. However, the threat of enslavement from Dzungaria remained. In the current situation, it would be necessary to find the correct political solution to the issue: to give the Russian government a legal basis for open intervention in the Dzungar-Kazakh conflict.

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