TYPES OF GAMES

Play is an activity by which a person transforms reality and changes the world. In the game, the need to influence the world is formed and manifested, and this is the main purpose of the game. Play is very closely related to the development of the personality, therefore, it acquires a fundamental meaning in the life of a child.

Types of games.

1. Individual play. Only one person participates in it.

2. Group game. Several people are engaged in this type of activity at the same time.

3. Object games. Feature - the inclusion of any objects in the game activity.

4. Narrative games. They follow a specific scenario.

5. Role-playing games. Allow human behavior limited to the role that he takes on. During the game, a person acts with objects according to the prescribed values. At the same time, the ability to regulate one's behavior with ideas about the social role and the actions corresponding to it is formed.

6. Playing by the rules. It is regulated by a certain system of rules of conduct for its participants. The people around them begin to act as bearers of such requirements. Playing the rules is focused on winning. According to social characteristics, it is a play activity, since it does not provide any useful product, but in terms of its psychological structure it approaches work. Here the goal is not the activity itself, but the result.

Often there are mixed types of games: plot-role-playing, subject-role-playing, plot-based games according to the rules, etc.

The game includes discoveries and acquisitions that have just appeared and have not been consolidated. Repeating them repeatedly during the game, the person reinforces these actions. The game allows a person to develop and prepare for further activities. Games are inextricably linked with the culture of the people, with the work and life of the people around them. Human needs are manifested and formed in the game. The nature and results of the development taking place in the process of play depend on the content that reflects the life of adults around the child. Play takes a different place in the life of an adult than in the life of a child.

Human play is not just a person's movements, performed due to the presence of unspent energy. It expresses the attitude of the individual to the surrounding reality. The motives of the game are expressed in the experiences of the sides of reality that are significant for the player. They reflect a direct relationship to the surrounding world. Here the discrepancy between the motive and the direct goal of the subject's activity disappears. The game implements the diverse motives of human activity, but at the same time it is not bound by the actions and techniques that are used in non-play activities.

TEACHING AS A KIND OF ACTIVITY

Learning activity is a form of activity in which the actions of a person are controlled by the conscious goal of mastering certain knowledge, skills, and abilities.

In the process of human development, labor has become more and more complicated and improved. Therefore, in order to carry out labor activities, it was necessary to master the results of the activities of previous generations. This is connected with the separation of teaching into a separate type of activity.

Learning follows play and comes close to work (in learning, it is necessary to perform, as in work, certain tasks). The learning process includes a two-way transfer of certain knowledge, their assimilation, which is carried out under the guidance of a teacher and is aimed at developing creative abilities.

There are two types of teaching. The first is specifically aimed at mastering certain knowledge and skills. The second leads to the acquisition of this knowledge in the process of carrying out any other activity. Human education usually occurs simultaneously in two ways.

The learning process is also a child's development process, as he prepares for independent work.

American psychology reduces the learning system to only mastering certain skills. The main part of the learning process is the process of effective assimilation of knowledge. It includes the perception of the material, its comprehension and memorization, the ability to freely use it in certain situations.

An important condition for the formation of educational activity is the creation in a child of conscious motives for the assimilation of specific knowledge and skills. The education and upbringing of a child is carried out with the help of explanation, encouragement, punishment, setting a problem, making demands, checking, correcting.

The perception of the material is the perception of knowledge that was developed by people and which the teacher transfers to the student. The perception of the material depends on how it is presented and presented.

The assimilation process includes several elements: initial acquaintance with the material, comprehension, consolidation, the ability to use in practice. The strength of the assimilation of knowledge depends not only on their subsequent consolidation, but also on the primary perception of ma-. the material. To perceive the material means to comprehend it and express a certain attitude towards it. Consequently, a special stage of educational work should be devoted to each element of educational activity.

Learning activity forms in a person the ability to control mental processes, organize, direct his actions and skills, accumulate experience depending on the task at hand.

The game- a type of unproductive activity, where the motive lies not as a result of it, but in the process itself. The game accompanies humanity throughout its history. Children begin to play from the moment they are born. With age, games become more difficult. For children, games are predominantly of developmental value. In adults, play is not a leading activity, but serves as a means of communication and relaxation.

There are several types of games: individual, group, subject, story, role-playing and rule-based games.

• Individual games are a type of activity when one person is engaged in the game.
• Group games - several individuals are involved in the activity.
• Object games are associated with the inclusion of any objects in the game activity.
• Narrative games are game activities according to a specific scenario.
• Role-playing games are human behavior limited to a certain role that a person takes on in the game.
• Games with rules is a game activity regulated by a certain system of rules of behavior of their participants.

These types can be mixed - subject-role, plot - role, plot with rules.

At first, the child's play activity is objective. However, the need to master the system of human relationships and the desire to participate in them lead the growing up child to the use of games with increasing mental content. Children begin to play role-playing and narrative-role-playing games, which require from them much more knowledge about the imaginary objects involved in the game, and cause deeper experiences. This is the developing force of this type of games.

With age, games are replaced by more serious occupations and work. However, even here the game does not disappear completely.

Teaching- This is an activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Learning can be both organized in special institutions, and unorganized and carried out spontaneously, while carrying out other types of activities.

There are two sides to teaching: the activity of the teacher and the activity of the student (teaching). At school, a child not only adopts a set of knowledge, skills and abilities, but, no less important, he learns to live, understand life in all its complexity and take part in it.

The driving force behind learning is the contradiction between what the child knows and what he wants or needs to know. So, for example, in infancy, manipulation of objects and toys allows the child to learn how to use them in accordance with the intended purpose. The child learns most of the actions according to the pattern. In one case, the child sees how adults act and reproduces their actions himself. In another, adults specifically show the techniques of action and help to master them. Usually, the independent mastery of samples by children is much greater than those that they master on the initiative and with the help of adults. There is a close connection between play and learning, the constant transition of play and learning into each other, the inclusion of elements of one activity in another.

Learning as cognition of the world and play are inextricably linked from the very first days of a child's life.

Learning organized and directed by adults is called teaching.

From individual and independent learning, this process turns into learning - a two-way purposeful process, one side of which is learning, and the other is teaching.

The learning process is quite complex and consists of several stages.

• Stage 1 - preparation for perception. Its essence lies in arousing interest in new knowledge, in creating an attitude towards their study.
• Stage 2 - perception. After the student has an interest in learning and a desire to learn new things, the teacher can only provide material for teaching.
• Stage 3 - comprehension. In essence, it corresponds to the stage of abstract thinking in the process of cognition and differs from it in that the comprehension of the perceived material takes place under the guidance and with the active help of the teacher.
• Stage 4 - consolidation and improvement of knowledge, development of knowledge and skills of their application. The main condition for the successful consolidation of the perceived and meaningful material in the memory is its repetition, and not mechanical, but meaningful.
• Stage 5 - application of knowledge, skills and abilities. This link of the educational process essentially corresponds to the stage of testing the theory of knowledge in practice.
• Stage 6 - checking the learning outcomes, analyzing and evaluating them. The essence of this stage is to establish feedback: the teacher receives information about the success of each student, analyzes and evaluates this information, determines the ways and means of further work.

Labor occupies a special place in the system of human life.

Work is an activity aimed at transforming material and non-material objects and adapting them to meet human needs. By the nature of the main effort expended, labor activity can be divided into several types:

• physical work;
• intellectual work;
• spiritual work.

In theory and in practice, labor, in fact, to the greatest extent is understood precisely as physical labor.

Physical labor can be classified as follows: - self-service labor (keeping the dwelling, clothing, workplace in order, preparing food for oneself, etc.);

• household family work;
• productive labor.

Self-service work is mastered earlier than others in childhood and accompanies a person throughout his life.

Household family labor- labor is longer, more complex in content and requires more effort. Often, it can only be conditionally separated from self-service labor. The main sign of its allocation is the performance of work not for oneself or not only for oneself.

Productive labor takes on a mass character, in which handicraft labor (using the simplest machines, tools, equipment) and industrial labor (the highest form of productive labor) are distinguished.

Intellectual work. Mental work (and only it) allows a person to know the world and his place in it.

Mental work - this type of work can also include work on self-improvement, on constant self-control, reflection.

Only in work - physical, intellectual and mental - does a person become a person.

A person has a need for communication, interaction with other people. Satisfying this need, he shows and realizes his capabilities.

Human life throughout its entire course is manifested, first of all, in communication. And all the diversity of life is reflected in the equally endless variety of communication: in the family, school, at work, in everyday life, in companies, etc.

Pedagogical communication- this is a professional communication between a teacher and students in the classroom and outside it, which has certain pedagogical functions and is aimed at creating a favorable psychological climate and optimizing educational activities.

Pedagogical communication is carried out mainly for the sake of the pupil, and the real result is ensured thanks to the activity of the pupil himself.

Another feature of pedagogical communication is its educational nature: unlike other types of communication (social, psychological, everyday, etc.), the solution of pedagogical problems is necessarily envisaged.

The normative function of pedagogical communication is expressed in ensuring the assimilation of the norms and rules of social behavior and the formation of certain skills and abilities. This is done in the course of specially organized events - conversations, discussions, meetings, as well as in the usual daily work of the teacher. Communication of pupils with each other is also of great importance, if it is purposefully organized and corrected by educators.

The cognitive function of pedagogical communication is to ensure that pupils master knowledge about the world around them, about nature, social phenomena and processes.

The emotional function of pedagogical communication is the enrichment of the entire spectrum of states of pupils in the course of any type of educational work by replenishing the memory of students, developing their thinking, improving the world of emotions, experiences.

The actualizing function of pedagogical communication is understood as the self-assertion of the teacher and the student, their approval in the opinion of others. Communication makes it possible for them to understand their individuality and significance.

The listed functions are implemented using verbal and non-verbal means.

In pedagogical communication, as in its other types, the role of the word is great. With its help, the teacher explains and asks, convinces, directs and stimulates, and the pupil informs about his problems, successes and desires.

Any need, being excited, evokes the work of the imagination, leads to the activation of activity, including the technique of satisfying this need. So, the achievement of a goal caused by the need for prestige includes a certain technique for satisfying this need, which causes certain actions in a partner: a positive assessment of my achievements, admiration for me. The ways in which a person causes the behavior he needs in a partner, in fact, constitute this technique, which some people master, albeit unconsciously, but perfectly.

Communication depends on the extent to which we have managed to evoke desirable experiences, aspirations and behaviors in a partner. As a rule, they answer a smile with a smile, a greeting with a greeting, and a question-answer. Therefore, the art of communication consists precisely in naturally evoking actions in another that support communication.

The technique of involving the other in communication will be different depending on what need is actualized in a given situation, what images arise in the mind of the communication partner.

Each need has its own specific technique of satisfaction. It is developed mostly unconsciously in everyday communication and can be adequate or inadequate, effective or ineffective. It helps to meet the needs that have caused the need for communication.

Yu.M. Orlov singled out the following basic rules for improving introspection and communication techniques:

1. Any act of communication should be viewed from the point of view of answering the question of what kind of needs are satisfied in this communication. What motives support it and give it meaning? It is from this point of view that past communication should be analyzed in memory. This analysis broadens our understanding of the motives for communication and improves its experience. "
2. Control your communication needs. An overwhelming need, for example, to be recognized can make you funny and weird. It should be remembered that controlling needs does not diminish the enjoyment of satisfying them.
3. Clearly and distinctly define the goals of communication, both yours and your partner. Questions: “What do I want? What does he want? " - require a precise answer.
4. When attributing motives, goals of communication to another, check them, and if they do not agree with the real signs of the partner's behavior, abandon this assumption and put forward something else. Communication motivation is flexible and changes not only from the situation, but also depending on the personality of the person whom you involve in communication. Do not repeat the mistakes of a stupid coquette who, in any situation, ascribes motives to all men to court her and, of course, looks ridiculous.
5. Explore the ways to meet the needs described in this book, how they manifest themselves in your communication and in the behavior of others, people who are especially important to you.
6. Do not impose your patterns of behavior and your motivation on another, do those actions that cause the desired reactions in your partner. Your actions should be an incentive for your partner's actions.
7. Strive to be natural and do not assume a role that is difficult to fulfill. To do this, you need to be truthful not only to your partner, but, above all, to yourself.
8. Recognize yourself as a unique and unique creature, interesting to communicate. There is every reason for this. Each of us is a configuration of many personality traits and it is impossible to compare any of us with the other at the same time in all aspects. And comparison on a separate line will not give grounds for conclusions about which of us is better on the whole, who is worse. Only the narrowness of consciousness when fixing it on a separate property leads to this kind of comparison.
9. It should be remembered that the art of communication completely excludes the solution of its problems with the help of force and imposition. Any violence in communication does not generate a satisfying response in communication, but a protective behavior of a partner, which leads to alienation of people. Therefore, partners must correspond to the goals and objectives of communication and have a desire for such communication. This rule provides for the application of the second, non-violent paradigm of control over communication, the behavior of another.

Compliance with these rules will help optimize the communication process and reduce the disruptive influence of the above factors.

Activity- This is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at cognition and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

The main feature of activity is that its content is not entirely determined by the need that gave rise to it. The need as a motive (incentive) gives an impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.

Distinguish three main activities: play, study and work. The purpose games it is the "activity" that is being carried out, not its results. Human activities aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities are called teaching... Is an activity, the purpose of which is the production of socially necessary products.

Activity characteristics

Activity is understood as a specifically human way of an active relationship to the world - a process during which a person creatively transforms the world around him, turning himself into an active subject, and the phenomena being mastered into an object of his activity.

Under subject here the source of activity, the actor, is understood. Since, as a rule, a person is active, it is more often than not that he is called the subject.

Object they call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, over which the activity is performed. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activity), another person (a student as an object of learning) or the subject itself (in the case of self-education, sports training).

To understand an activity, several important characteristics should be considered.

Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition for human life: it created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Consequently, a person does not exist outside of activity. The opposite is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only a person is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activities.

Activity is the transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. Man is able to actively change these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.

Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: a person in the process of his activity goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.

Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social ties.

The essence of activity is revealed in more detail in the course of its structural analysis.

The main forms of human activity

Human activities are carried out in (industrial, household, natural environment).

Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring from a person high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, emotional stability.

The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is to optimize work activities on the basis of rational consideration of human capabilities.

All the variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.

Physical work

Physical work requires significant muscular activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and more per day.

Brainwork

Brainwork(intellectual activity) is a work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring the tension of attention, memory, activation of thinking processes. The daily energy expenditure for mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2,000-2,400 kcal).

The structure of human activity

The structure of activity is usually presented in a linear fashion, with each component following the other in time.

Need → Motive → Purpose → Means → Action → Result

Let's consider all the components of the activity one by one.

The need for action

Need- this is a need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for a normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, an awareness of this need and its nature is necessary.

The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Fig. 2.2).

Maslow divided needs into primary, or congenital, and secondary, or acquired. These, in turn, include the needs:

• physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical recreation, etc .;
• existential- safety and security, inviolability of personal property, guaranteed employment, confidence in the future, etc .;
• social - striving for belonging and belonging to any social group, collective, etc. The values ​​of attachment, friendship, love are based on these needs;
• prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values ​​of self-affirmation, leadership;
• spiritual - focused on self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and use of their skills, abilities and knowledge.
• The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs to it:
• cognitive- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. These include the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
• aesthetic- striving for harmony, ordering, beauty;
• transcending- disinterested striving not to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.

According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is first necessary to satisfy those needs that take place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to meet the needs of a higher level.

Motives of activity

Motive - a need-based conscious motivation that justifies and justifies activity. A need will become a motive if it is perceived not just as, but as a guide to action.

In the process of forming a motive, not only needs are involved, but also other motives. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.

Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although the needs of all people are the same, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, youth and pensioners, are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important; entrepreneurs have rather material interests, while people of art have spiritual interests. Each person also has his own personal interests based on individual inclinations, sympathies (people listen to different music, go in for different sports, etc.).

Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed down from generation to generation. You can talk about the traditions of religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian), etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person can limit his primary needs (replacing safety and security for activities in high-risk conditions).

Beliefs- firm, principled views of the world based on the ideals of a person's worldview and implying a person's willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of preserving honor and dignity).

Installations- preferential orientations of a person towards certain institutions of society, which are superimposed on needs. For example, a person can be focused on religious values, or material enrichment, or public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.

In complex activities, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is highlighted, which is considered to be the driving one.

Objectives of the activity

Target - it is a conscious idea of ​​the result of an activity, an anticipation of the future. Any activity presupposes goal-setting, i.e. the ability to independently set goals. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined in advance and expressed in instincts. Man is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never been in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in the activity of animals, it is not an activity. Moreover, if an animal never presents in advance the results of its activity, then a person, starting an activity, keeps in consciousness the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.

However, the goal can be daunting and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place a seedling in it, water it, etc. Representations of outputs are called tasks. Thus, the goal is broken down into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.

Funds used in activities

Funds - these are the techniques used in the course of activity, methods of action, objects, etc. For example, to learn social studies, you need lectures, textbooks, assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to get a professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in your activities, etc.

Funds must be consistent with the goals in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the end. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be ineffective) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, you cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for this; it is also pointless to buy several times more materials than is needed to build it.

Second, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If goals are immoral, then all activity is immoral (on this occasion, the hero of FM Dostoevsky's novel "The Brothers Karamazov" Ivan asked whether the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).

Action

Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity consists of individual activities. For example, teaching activity consists of preparing and giving lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) identified the following types of social action:

• goal-oriented - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable sang. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all the means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
• value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values ​​(for example, refusal of a prisoner to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning man at the risk of his own life);
• affective - actions committed under the influence of strong feelings - hatred, fear (for example, fleeing from the enemy or spontaneous aggression);
• traditional- actions based on habit, which are often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).

The basis of activity is formed by actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious purpose and are of a creative nature. Affects and traditional actions can only have some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.

Special forms of action are: actions - actions that have value-rational, moral significance, and actions - actions that have high positive social significance. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is a common action that is neither an act nor an act. The word “act” is often used in jurisprudence to refer to an act or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in the legislation “a crime is an unlawful, socially dangerous, guilty act”.

Activity Result

Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, abilities and skills, the result -, the result of scientific activity - ideas and inventions. The result of an activity can be itself, since in the course of activity it develops and changes.

Learning is a conscious activity. The doctrine has a clearer and more understandable goal - the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a successful life. Learning can be an organized process and carried out in special educational organizations. It may not be organized, it may occur sporadically, in other types of activity as their side, additional result. In adults, learning can take on the character of self-education. Although the teaching is the "legal successor" of the game, everything in it is real (usually). Real letters on the board, real knowledge in a textbook, real tasks, real grades. Organized training concentrates many centuries of human experience. The student's task is not to have fun, but to adopt experience, along the way developing his intellectual qualities.

18. Characteristics of labor as a type of activity

Labor is a conscious kind of activity. Through work, the overwhelming majority of adults find a means of subsistence. Thanks to work, as you know, a man from a monkey became who he is. Thanks to labor, a modern society has been built, objects of material and spiritual culture have been created.

Labor is a complex, multi-level activity. Labor can be considered both at the individual level (the work of one person), and at the group level (work in the organization), and even at the global level. All people are linked by the division of labor. And it would not be a great exaggeration to say that the work of one person on the planet affects the work of any other person, albeit to a very meager degree. Labor includes the creation, use and improvement of tools of labor. The fate of labor depends on the use of certain tools.

19. Temperament and its psychological properties

Temperament is a stable combination of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity. Temperament is the basis for character development; in general, from a physiological point of view, temperament is a type of human higher nervous activity.

Properties:

Sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

Reactivity is characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (critical remark, offensive word, harsh tone - even sound).

Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (perseverance, purposefulness, concentration of attention).

The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what a person's activity is most dependent on: from random external or internal circumstances, moods, random events) or from goals, intentions, beliefs.

Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is.

Extraversion, introversion determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions arising at the moment (extravert), or from images, ideas and thoughts associated with the past and future (introvert).

In the process of historical development, the forms of labor, all improving, at the same time became more complex. Due to this, it became less and less possible to master the knowledge and skills necessary for labor activity in the process of the activity itself. Therefore, in order to prepare for further actual production labor activity, it became necessary to single out as a special type of teaching educational work for the development of the generalized results of the previous work of other people. Humanity has allocated for this a special period in the life of a growing person and created for him such special forms of existence in which learning is the main activity: "years of mastery" are preceded by "years of study", in the words of I. V. Goethe.

Teaching, which, in a sequential change in the main types of activity that takes place during the life of each person, follows play and precedes work, differs significantly from play and approaches work in a common setting: in learning, as in work, you need to perform tasks - Cook lessons, follow discipline; learning work is built on responsibilities. The general attitude of the personality in teaching is no longer playful, but labor.

The main goal of the teaching, in relation to which his entire social organization is adjusted, is to prepare for future independent labor activity; the main means is the assimilation of the generalized results of what was created by the previous labor of mankind; mastering the results of past social labor, a person prepares for his own labor activity. This learning process does not proceed spontaneously, not by gravity. Learning is a side of the essentially social learning process - a two-way process of transferring and assimilating knowledge. It is carried out under the guidance of a teacher and is aimed at developing the creative capabilities of the student.

Including learning as a side to learning, we view the learning process as a single process that includes both teacher and student, united by certain relationships, instead of breaking and opposing learning and teaching, as has been done many times. At the same time, while highlighting learning as a special aspect of the process, we emphasize the student's activity. The learning process as a whole includes the interaction of a student and a teacher; teaching is not passive perception, as it were, the acceptance of the knowledge transmitted by the teacher, but their development.

Learning in this specific sense of the word is a kind of derivative activity in which the goal is shifted or displaced in comparison with the activity for which it serves as a preparation. That which in this latter is only a prerequisite, a means, a way of its implementation, in teaching appears as an end. With this displacement of purpose, both displacement and changes in motives are inevitably associated. In reality, however, far from everything that a person learns, he acquires as a result of learning in this specific sense of the word - study or the educational process as a special activity aimed at mastering certain knowledge and skills as its direct goal. For example, a child initially masters speech, taking advantage of it in the process communication, but not studying her in the process teachings. The mastery of speech is accomplished by him as a result of activities directed not at all at mastering it, but at communication through speech. Such a learning process, in which learning becomes the result of an activity, without being its goal, can be very effective. There are thus two kinds of teaching or, more precisely, two ways of learning and two types of activities, as a result of which a person acquires new knowledge and skills. One of them is specifically aimed at mastering this knowledge and skills as its direct goal. The other leads to the mastery of this knowledge and skills, realizing other goals. In the latter case, teaching is not an independent activity, but a process that is carried out as a component and result of another activity. Learning, bringing to the final results is usually carried out in both ways, in one ratio or another.

No matter how great the importance of a specially allocated educational activity for mastering knowledge and skills as technical components of a particular life, professional activity, true mastery completing the training of any activity, a person achieves not just by learning, but on the basis of previous training, performing this activity. An action performed once as an educational action in order to learn, that is, to master the way of performing a given action, and externally then the same an action performed not in an educational, but in a business plan, in order to obtain a certain result, these are psychologically different actions. In the first case, the subject is focused mainly on the methods of its implementation, on its scheme, in the second - on the result; in the latter case, it is necessary to take into account additional circumstances, not essential or not so essential in the first; the measure of responsibility is different in both cases and, in connection with this, the general attitude of the individual. In comparison with an educational action, the purpose of which is only to master the methods of its implementation, an action, the purpose of which is an objective result, makes additional requirements, and its fulfillment, without setting the goal of learning, gives an additional effect in this respect. In turn, the learning action has its advantages.

Correctly determining when and how each of these methods of teaching should be used is one of the essential, not yet sufficiently understood and developed problems of didactics and methodology.

Since teaching consists in mastering knowledge and skills developed as a result of historical development, the question naturally and inevitably arises of the relationship between the path and sequence of teaching and the path of the historical development of knowledge.

Since learning should be a preparation for further activity, the question of the relationship between learning and development, about learning as formative, that is, just as naturally and necessary arises. educational, process.

Teaching and cognition. On the question of the relationship between the learning process and the historical process of cognition, two equally erroneous points of view often struggle with each other.

The first of these can be characterized as the theory of identity, or recapitulation. It identifies the path of learning with the historical path of cognition, not

seeing between them no qualitative differences and believing that the teaching should reproduce, recapitulate the course of the historical development of knowledge. This general attitude determines the solution of basic didactic problems. This, in principle, vicious attitude underestimates, first of all, the fact that the results of the traversed path of knowledge often open up new access to it; therefore, after it has been passed once, the repetition of its initial stages in the same form and in the same sequence would contradict the results to which it led. Underestimation of this circumstance means an anti-dialectical, mechanical approach to the very history of cognition. This is the first thing. This point of view, in principle, does not take into account, secondly, the age characteristics and real capabilities of the child, the possibility and often the need to subject the material transmitted to the students to special didactic processing. This is the point of view of abstract epistemology and sociologism in didactics. Such an interpretation of didactics means actually its negation.

The opposite point of view, which also finds adherents among teachers, proceeds from the recognition of the complete fundamental independence of the path of learning and the process of cognition. This is the point of view of the complete autocracy of didactics, its perfect independence in relation to the theory of knowledge, which reflects the development of knowledge in its basic essential laws. From this point of view, the path of learning is determined in principle independently of the path of cognition. The main task of didactics is to process the material presented to the student in such a way that it is as accessible as possible, intelligible, easy to learn. This problem is solved by the supporters of this point of view by setting to proceed from the child.

This point of view is based either on the separation of didactics from the theory of knowledge, or on the pragmatic theory of knowledge, which, by basing knowledge on personal experience, divides it from the historical development of social cognition. Both the autocracy of didactics, divorced from the theory of knowledge, and the centering of knowledge on personal experience, in isolation from social experience, and on the individual development of knowledge, in isolation from its historical development, is naturally combined with pedocentrism. This is again a flawed position. It leads to the positions of naturalistic psychology and pedagogy. The errors of this point of view are rooted in the gap between the logical and the historical.

The really correct solution to this basic question is to recognize unity(not identity) and differences(and not complete heterogeneity) of the path of learning and the process of cognition. For teaching purposes, the knowledge material must indeed undergo special treatment. It is a didactic job to determine the general principles of this special treatment. It has its own tasks that are not reducible to simple reproduction of the history of science or mechanical repetition of the provisions of the theory of knowledge. While processing educational material in a certain way for its best assimilation, didactics must nevertheless provide mastering a certain material, a certain subject. This subject has its own objective logic, which cannot be violated with impunity. The logical, which stands out in the process of the historical development of cognition, and forms that common thing that unites both the historical development of cognition and the process of learning: in it is their unity. In the course of the historical development of cognition, to reveal this logical, a certain path was traversed, reflecting the logic of the subject, depending on the specific conditions of historical development; in the learning process, the child is brought to the knowledge of the logical, objective logic of the subject in accordance with the specific conditions of his individual, age-related development. Therefore, the path of learning and the path of cognition, with all their unity, are different. Therefore, the definition of ways of teaching also presupposes knowledge of the laws of the child's development, in particular, his mental development.

Education and development. In this regard, the second question is raised - about the relationship between development and learning. The child does not develop at first and then is brought up and trained, he develops, learning, and learns, developing.

Therefore, in particular, the concept widespread in the literature readiness child to school learning needs clarification. Inclusion in school education requires, of course, a certain level of development, which is achieved by the child as a result of preschool education.

But school education is not simply built on top of already matured functions. Necessary for schooling data are further developed in the process of schooling itself; necessary for him, they v it is also formed.

In particular, the question cannot be posed as it was usually posed in functional psychology, as if at first the child's perception, memory, attention, thinking mature, and then training is built on them and uses them. In fact, there is a relationship here. One or another level of perception, memory, thinking of children is not so much a prerequisite as the result of that specific cognitive learning activity, in the process of which they are not only manifested, but also formed.

It follows from this that the learning process should also be a child's development process. This is also required by the main goals of training, which are to prepare for future independent work activities. Based on this, it is concluded that the only task of teaching is not to communicate certain knowledge to the child, but only to develop certain abilities in him: it does not matter what material to tell the child, it is only important to teach him to observe, think, etc. This is how the theory of the formal teaches. learning, which sees the task of education not in the fact that the student has mastered a certain amount of knowledge, but in developing in him certain abilities necessary in order to acquire them.

In contrast to this point of view, others one-sidedly emphasize only the mastery of a certain amount of knowledge as the goal of learning. This is a false antithesis. Of course, while teaching, you need to develop the child, you need to shape his abilities, you need to educate him to observe, think, etc. But, first, this can be done only on a certain material; secondly, being a necessary means for the development of a child's abilities, mastering a certain system of knowledge also has an independent meaning. The fruitful inclusion of a person in socially organized labor necessarily requires not only certain abilities, but also certain knowledge containing a generalized result of the previous historical development of knowledge. To believe that one has only to develop the child's ability to observe, think, etc., and then he himself will reach all the knowledge he needs, means, ultimately, to build knowledge on personal experience regardless of social experience, generally reflected in the system of knowledge. In fact, the mastery of a certain system of knowledge that has developed in the process of historical development is both a means and an end, just as the development of abilities is both a goal and a means. In the real course of learning and development, both one and the other take place - both the development of a certain system of knowledge, and at the same time the development of the child's abilities.

The development and formation of general abilities in the course of general educational work and special (musical, artistic, visual, etc.) in the course of special education is one of the most important tasks of the learning process. To study this process, however, very little has been done due to the prevailing views in traditional psychology on the nature of abilities. According to these views, abilities in the course of learning seem to be not so much formed as only manifest. In reality, they are not only manifested, but also formed and developed in the course of training. Their development is not only a prerequisite, but also the result of mastering the knowledge system.

These are the most basic questions, on the solution of which the general interpretation of the teaching depends. The main patterns of this learning process are of a pedagogical, not a psychological nature. Therefore, we have only touched on them here, so that, proceeding from all the points that determine the understanding of teaching as a whole, we can proceed to characterizing - also brief - the main psychological problematics of the learning process.

On the psychological level, first of all, the question arises about the motives for learning, about the attitude of students to learning.

Lecture 8. Unconscious mental processes (lecture)

1. Concept and classification of unconscious processes.

2. Unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions.

3. Unconscious stimuli of conscious actions.

4. "Supraconscious" processes.