Basic thought operations

The thinking process consists of a number of mental operations and their various combinations; it is analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, classification, systematization, abstraction, concretization.

Analysis is the mental dismemberment of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts, the isolation of individual parts, signs and properties in it.

For the development of the mental operation of analysis, it is advisable to offer students tasks with missing or redundant data. The student is faced with a dead-end situation (with a lack of information) or with a problem (with an excess of information).

Analysis can be practical and mental. In the first case, the thought process is directly included in the practical (manual) human activity. In the second case, it occurs only as a mental activity. Examples of practical analysis include dismantling (disassembling) a mechanism, filtering, sorting grain before sowing, determining the chemical composition of the soil, etc. Of course, making a practical analysis of something, a person thinks, is guided by a certain principle in identifying parts of the whole. Mental analysis is not included directly in practical activity, but is an independent thought process. Mental analysis is also called theoretical. In theoretical analysis, a person only perceives an object, or represents it, or only thinks about it. Perceiving the artist's picture, one can distinguish in it the idea, the originality of the composition, the main characters, the features of the background, artistic techniques in depicting the characters and the general mood of the picture, etc. When analyzing a historical event, a person only imagines this event and thinks about it; in this case, the analysis is aimed at identifying the main stages in the course of an event, its causes and consequences.

There are several types of analysis for the intended purpose: for the purpose

A) identifying the structure, i.e. what the object consists of, what are its parts;

B) determining the components that form a set of properties;

C) finding the functions of the object.

Synthesis is the mental combination of individual elements, parts and features into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked, are in unity with each other in the process of cognition: we always analyze what is synthetically whole, and we synthesize what is analytically dismembered.

Analysis and synthesis are the most important mental operations, in unity they give a complete and comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis gives knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, relying on the results of analysis, combining these elements, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.

Any analysis begins with a preliminary general acquaintance with an object or phenomenon and then goes on to a deeper and more detailed analysis. The processes of analysis and synthesis often arise in the beginning in practical action. To disassemble or assemble a motor in your head, you need to learn how to disassemble and assemble it in practice.

In the process of cognition, it becomes necessary not only to analyze any object or phenomenon, but also to select for a more in-depth study any one sign, one property, one part, distracting (abstracting) for a while from all the others, without taking them into account. As a rule, not just some signs and properties are distinguished, but important, essential signs.

The relationship between analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood, so that first analysis must be performed, and then synthesis: any analysis presupposes synthesis and vice versa. The relationship between analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood, so that first an analysis must be made, and then a synthesis: any analysis presupposes a synthesis and vice versa of its elements, which were cognized in the process of its analysis. Thanks to the synthesis, we get a holistic concept of a given object or phenomenon, as consisting of regularly connected parts. As in analysis, synthesis is based on the possibility of practically performing such a reunification of an object from its elements.

The relationship between analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood, so that first analysis must be performed, and then synthesis: any analysis presupposes synthesis and vice versa.

In the analysis, not all parts are highlighted, but only those that are essential for a given subject. In such a physical exercise as a jump, many different elements can be noted: hand movement, head movement, facial expressions, etc. All of these elements are more or less related to this exercise, and we highlight them. However, in the process of scientific analysis, we rely not on these, but on the essential parts of the whole, without which this whole cannot exist. It is not the facial expressions or movements of the head and arms that are essential for the jump, but the run and jerk.

The selection of essential elements in the analysis of a complex phenomenon does not occur mechanically, but as a result of understanding the meaning of individual parts for the whole. Before mentally highlighting the essential features or parts, we must have at least a vague general synthetic concept of the entire object as a whole, in the aggregate of all its parts. Such a concept arises as a result of a preliminary, formed even before a detailed analysis of the general understanding of the subject on the basis of practical acquaintance with it.

Comparison is the juxtaposition of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences between them. K. D. Ushinsky considered the operation of comparison to be the basis of understanding. He believed that we cognize any subject only by equating it with something and distinguishing it from something.

The comparison is based on analysis. In order to reflect with the help of thinking any connections and relations between objects or phenomena of the objective world, it is necessary, first of all, to highlight these phenomena in perception or representation. For example, in order to understand the reason for the unsuccessful performance of a given physical exercise by an athlete, it is necessary to focus your thought on this exercise and on the conditions under which it was performed. This selection is always associated with the awareness of the problem, it presupposes a preliminary formulation of the question, which determines the selection of the objects of interest to us.

Comparison plays a very important role in the student's learning activity. Comparing, for example, an adjective and a verb, the operations of multiplication and division, oxygen and hydrogen, a triangle and a rectangle, a forest, a steppe and a desert, a slave-owning and feudal system, the student deeper understands the features of these objects or phenomena.

A successful comparison of objects and phenomena is possible when it is purposeful, i.e. occurs from a certain point of view, for the sake of answering a question. It can be aimed either at establishing the similarity of objects, or at establishing a difference, or at both at the same time.

Studies have shown that younger students will be more successful in finding similarities between objects if, when compared, they give an additional object that is different from the compared ones. Students compare images of domestic animals - a cow and a sheep, and there are not many similar signs. If you show three pictures - a cow, a sheep and a dog, then the students will find much more similar signs in a cow and a sheep.

Concepts are formed in a person as a result of the process of generalization, i.e. mental unification of objects and phenomena that have common properties. Generalizations will be correct when objects and phenomena are combined on an essential basis. So, to think of the concept of "metal" means to highlight the common features that iron, steel, cast iron, copper, etc. have, and to combine them in one generalizing word - "metal". But not always an essential feature is taken as the basis for generalization. Sometimes the unification happens by chance. Such mistakes are often made by children.

The writer resorts to generalization, taking some features from individual people and combining them in one person, thus creating a typical image of a literary hero. A.M. Gorky said that it is necessary to take a very good look at a hundred people of any class in order to paint a portrait of one of its representatives approximately correctly.

Generalization is one of the basic mental operations. It consists in identifying common features, properties, qualities, tendencies of change in a number of objects, phenomena, events.

There are 2 types of generalizations: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical generalization is a generalization based on a comparison of objects in the selection and designation through the word of their common properties. The use of such properties as classification ones gives a person the opportunity to work with a much larger volume of objects than is possible in the preceptual sense. With the help of classification schemes, each new item is recognized as belonging to a certain class. The ability for empirical generalization is formed even in preschool age, but the most sensitive age is the younger school age.

For example, in physics there is a group of problems, united by such a common feature: in them it is necessary to find the characteristics of the motion of bodies, without delving into the reasons that cause the movements; these tasks are related to kinematics.

When we carry out laboratory work, then after carrying out a series of similar experiments, we draw a conclusion, the essence of which is to identify a common property in the results obtained.

These examples convince that the operation "generalization" is not so rare, that it is associated with analysis, comparison, classification and abstraction.

Theoretical generalization is a generalization based on the identification of significant connections between the phenomena of the surrounding world, indicating their genetic relationship. It is carried out with the help of a concept in which only the most essential is fixed, and the particular is omitted. The ability for theoretical generalization is formed most intensively in adolescence and adolescence.

Theoretical generalization is carried out by analyzing the totality and highlighting the general in its composition. Typically, this selection occurs as a result of a transformation.

Teachers and didactics came to the conclusion that in middle age it is advisable for students to deal only with empirical generalizations, and in older age - sometimes with theoretical ones.

Classification is a complex mental operation that requires the ability to analyze the material, compare (correlate) with each other its individual elements, find common features in them, carry out generalization on this basis, distribute objects into groups based on the ones highlighted in them and reflected in the word - the name groups - common signs. Classification, therefore, contains operations such as correlation, generalization and designation.

In life, we often perform this operation or observe it. In problem books, we see collections of tasks related to one specific issue, for example, free falling bodies, friction.

In public life, classification also takes place. For example, those who go in for sports join sports clubs, who love fishing - the “Fisherman-Athlete” society, those who adhere to certain political views form a party.

The classification is widely used in botany and zoology. For example, there is a class of vertebrates - "Reptiles"; it is divided into subclasses: "First lords", "Scaly", "Turtles", "Crocodiles".

Considering ionization (i.e. the process of transformation of atoms and molecules into ions) from the point of view of the cause causing this process. Scientists have identified the following types of ionization: thermal ionization (occurs as a result of gas heating), photoionization (the reason is the absorption of light), impact ionization (the reason is mechanical collision), ionization generated by the action of a) an electric field, b) radioactive decay, c) a cosmic stream rays.

With the help of a separator, the mined ore can be divided into fractions according to the mass of particles of the same composition: in one there will be heavier grains, in the other - lighter ones.

Systematization is the procedure for creating or composing a whole from separate parts and identifying connections between them.

There is another definition of the concept of "systematization". To systematize means to bring into the system, i.e. arrange the individual component parts in some order, establishing their sequence based on the chosen principle.

It is with this (second) definition that the world-famous work of the great chemist D.I. Mendeleev. Taking as a basis, i.e. choosing the relative atomic weight as the main feature that determines the properties of chemical elements, the scientist arranged all the elements in ascending order of atomic weights and received the Periodic Table of Elements. Further, in connection with the development of science, the main system-forming feature was changed: it was the charge of the atomic nucleus; fortunately, the system itself has not changed from this.

How to proceed if we want to systematize in accordance with the second definition (for example, create a diagram of connections of formulas from some section of physics, a chronological table of scientific discoveries in some area of ​​physics)?

In the second chapter, we will present a systematization algorithm.

Abstraction is the mental highlighting of essential properties and attributes of objects or phenomena while simultaneously abstracting from insignificant attributes and properties.

The feature of an object isolated in the process of abstraction is thought of independently of other features and becomes an independent object of thought. So, observing various transparent objects: air, glass, water, etc., we distinguish a common feature in them - transparency and can think about transparency in general; observing the movement of celestial bodies, machines, people, animals, we distinguish a common feature - movement and think of movement in general as an independent object. In the same way, with the help of abstraction, concepts of length, height, volume, triangle, number, verb, etc. are created.

Abstraction lies at the basis of generalization - the mental unification of objects and phenomena into groups according to those general and essential characteristics that stand out in the process of abstraction.

In the educational work of schoolchildren, generalization usually manifests itself in conclusions, definitions, rules, classification. It is sometimes difficult for schoolchildren to generalize, since they are far from always able to independently identify not only common, but also essential common features.

Some Russian psychologists (D.B. Elkonin, V.V.Davydov) distinguish between two types of generalization: formal-empirical and substantive (theoretical). Formal empirical generalization is carried out by comparing a number of objects and identifying externally identical and common features. Substantial (theoretical) generalization is based on a deep analysis of objects and the identification of hidden common and essential features, relationships and dependencies.

The abstraction process

Any process of cognition is aimed at achieving complete, comprehensive knowledge about an object, therefore, “naked”, abstracted knowledge should gradually “grow over” with specifics, which is inseparable from synthesis. The concretization of abstractions can be considered another stage of cognition. In life, in science, there is always an ascent from the abstract - the main, but simplified, one-sided, as it were, “straightforward”, “naked” knowledge to concrete, more complete, “ramified” knowledge.

Abstraction is used to study new objects, phenomena, processes, events. It is widely used when considering complex problems, which simplifies the solution. Gradually, a solution with one specific condition is added to a solution with an abstract object, then with a second, etc.

Types of abstractions

There are three types of abstraction:

Isomeric (isolating) - separating the investigated phenomenon from some integrity,

Generalizing - giving a generalized picture of the phenomenon,

Idealizing - replacing reality, an existing object or phenomenon with an idealized scheme.

Concretization is a mental transition from the general to the singular, which corresponds to this general.

In educational activity, to concretize means to give an example, an illustration, a specific fact confirming the general theoretical position, rule, law (for example, grammatical, mathematical rule, physical, socio-historical law, etc.). In the educational process, concretization is of great importance: it connects our theoretical knowledge with life, with practice and helps to correctly understand reality. The lack of concretization leads to the formalism of knowledge, which remains bare and useless abstractions, divorced from life.

Pupils and students often find it difficult to give examples to illustrate their answer. This occurs during the normal assimilation of knowledge, when the formulation of general provisions is assimilated (or memorized), and the content remains unclear. Therefore, the teacher should not be content with the fact that the students correctly reproduce the general provisions, but must seek to concretize these provisions: giving an example, illustration, a specific particular case. This is especially important at school and especially in primary school. When a teacher gives an example, he reveals, shows how in this particular case the general is revealed, which is illustrated by an example. Only under this condition does the particular render significant assistance to the understanding of the general.

Stages of the concretization process

Concretization presupposes the reconstruction of the most complete picture of knowledge about a real object. Thanks to this, the knowledge contained in an abstract concept in an abbreviated form becomes complete. This process and its stages are shown in the following figure.

If you think about the drawing, then concretization can be represented as the creation of branches to the main trunk of a tree, identified with abstraction. And the more branches there are, the more fully the tree is instantiated.

Concretization is one of the ways of cognition. The ability to fulfill it is a necessary condition for the formation of thinking. Specification is carried out in two forms:

Sensually visual - through models, tables, maps, plans, diagrams, experiments;

Verbal - through verbal explanations. As stated in the Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia, concretization differs from illustration and examples, which only explain some property or some regularity with a separate particular fact. We tend to consider examples as the simplest type of concretization, provided that each example reveals one of the properties or qualities of the object, one of the connections.

We deal with concretization in its scientific understanding in cases like the following. To master a new concept, for example, "friction" (friction is the force of resistance to movement that arises at the point of contact between bodies pressed against each other - this is an abstraction), you need to organize the work so that students see: friction appears when:

a) the movement of bodies relative to each other,

b) sliding and rolling,

c) friction is large and small,

d) it can increase and decrease,

e) depends on the material of the contacting surfaces.

All these facts and the experiences that reveal them make it possible to create a fairly complete image of the phenomenon, to show both the main, typical features, and particular ones.

It becomes clear why, in empirical thinking (i.e., based on experience), concretization acts as a means of implementing the principle of visibility in teaching.

Practice has shown that visual concretization is available to students of primary and secondary school age, and verbal - mainly to older ones.

We note once again: to concretize means to connect a concept, a term with reality, to clarify it, but most importantly: to present it in detail and with many connections.

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In the process of evolution of views on the nature and essence of the thought process, the question of the formation of mental operations attracted special attention of scientists. , unlike other physiological processes, occurs on the basis of a certain logic. This makes it possible to single out individual structural elements: abstraction, analysis and synthesis, classification and categorization, concretization, generalization, comparison, and to characterize them. The regularities of the functioning of the named operations of thinking are, in fact, the main internal, specific foundations of thinking. Their study helps to get a detailed explanation of all the external manifestations of mental activity.

• Abstraction
• Analysis and synthesis
• Classification and categorization
• Concretization
• Generalization
• Comparison

Abstraction

Abstraction (abstraction) is one of the main processes of human mental activity, cognition based on the selection of essential, regular signs, properties, connections of an object of an object or phenomenon, a distraction from non-essential aspects. In everyday life, the ability to abstract is most often associated with the ability to focus on finding and solving the most important aspect of the problem under consideration.

Depending on the goals of abstraction, there are formal and substantive abstractions. Formal abstraction - highlighting the properties of an object that do not exist independently of it (for example, shape or color). It serves as the basis for the assimilation of knowledge by children describing objects according to their external properties, which serves as a prerequisite for theoretical thinking. Substantial abstraction is the isolation of those properties of an object that themselves have relative independence (for example, a cell of an organism). This type of abstraction develops the ability to operate on properties separately.

Analysis and synthesis

In any kind of intellectual work - in the field of mathematics, political science, painting, etc. - analysis and synthesis are widely used. This is not about scientific methods, but about interconnected mental operations.

The etymology of the word "analysis" comes from the ancient Greek "break", "dismember". As a mental operation, analysis implies the study of a thing, property, process or relationship between objects by means of a real or mental division of the whole into its components. This operation is one of the basic ones in the process of cognition and object-practical human activity.

An example of a practical analysis is the chemical process of the breakdown of a kitchen salt molecule into sodium and chlorine ions in order to study the composition and molecular bonds. The mental operation of analysis presupposes the theoretical ability to operate with the constituent parts of an object or phenomenon and, on the basis of this, draw certain conclusions. For example, thanks to mental analysis, a child learns to distinguish geometric shapes as a set of separate characteristics: a square consists of four straight lines, a triangle differs from a square in the number of angles and lines.

Synthesis (from the ancient Greek "connection", "folding") - the study of something through the combination of things, concepts, judgments about a phenomenon or object in order to get a comprehensive and versatile idea of ​​it. An example of a synthesis can be the case when, while writing an essay on history on the topic "Common features of the economic systems of the USSR and China," a student, relying on knowledge of two different topics, determines what was common in the development of two main socialist countries in a given period.

John Locke, in his Experiment on the Human Mind, was convinced that knowledge is created by combining perception, representation, and other types of knowledge. Immanuel Kant in his "Critique of Pure Reason" asserted that there are two mutually complementary operations: analysis - understanding through the study of parts, synthesis - understanding through connection, unification of components, ascent from the singular to the multiple. In common parlance, analysis and synthesis are two sides of the same coin.

Classification and categorization

We are constantly faced with classification and categorization in everyday life, how firmly it has become a part of it, that most people do not even think when they resort to such a mental operation. Throughout life, concepts and knowledge about objects, we almost at a subconscious level refer them to one category or another, which leads to the convenience of using information. Almost everything around us obeys a certain logic: be it departments in a supermarket or road signs.

Most modern dictionaries use the terms "classification" and "categorization" interchangeably. There is also a different opinion that "category" is a broader concept than "class", but even then the definition of the term itself remains the same. Classification is a logical operation of dividing the scope of a concept based on its characteristics. An example is a table known to us since school:

Concretization

Concretization (from the Latin "established") is a method of cognition, a logical operation associated with the transfer of a general statement to a specific object or phenomenon. For example, it is known that corrosion of metals occurs as a result of the influence of the environment, in particular oxygen, on the metal. Therefore, having discovered a new metal, it can be assumed that it will corrode under the influence of oxygen.

Generalization

Generalization is a logical operation opposite to concretization. It implies the transfer of a particular statement, applicable to one or more objects, to other objects, as a result of which it ceases to be specific, acquiring a general character. So, having studied photosynthesis on the example of several plants, we can conclude that the process is impossible without sunlight in other plants.

Comparison

Every person has at least once heard the conclusion: "Everything is cognized in comparison." Indeed, to determine what is good and what is better, to compare the properties of two objects is possible only by resorting to the comparison operation - the process of quantitative or qualitative comparison of different properties (similarities, differences, advantages and disadvantages) of objects. Comparison is the most important mental category on the basis of which our understanding of the world around us is formed.

All of the above logical operations are mutually complementary, help to receive and transform information, quickly use it at the right time.

Development of the ability to perform mental operations

Few adults today think about the fact that many children's games and tasks offered in elementary school are structured in such a way as to develop basic mental operations. Logic chains, rebuses, riddles and puzzles pursue the goal of developing the skills of abstract-logical thinking from childhood, teaching how to identify similarities and differences in objects, defining concepts, eliminating unnecessary things. Growing up, we perform these operations without hesitation, but sometimes we face difficulties in solving. This is precisely due to the fact that over the years of professional activity, our brain to automatism improves the performance of certain tasks related to the occupation. But as soon as we meet with another area, difficulties arise. To prevent this from happening, you need to constantly improve, developing all the basic mental operations. Exercises on the ability to understand, identify and apply these operations will help in this.

Classic examples of such games are chess, backgammon, and scrabble. In Soviet times, match puzzles were quite popular, which today have found a new life thanks to their popularization on social networks. You can try your hand at this kind of tasks with the help of.

An interesting and effective exercise for the development of mental operations can be passing an IQ test. There are many varieties of it, the most popular of which is the Eysenck test. You can familiarize yourself with the recommendations for passing such tests, which are now also popular when applying for a job.

Detailed information on the development of different types of thinking, as well as exercises for training them, are collected in the course. Take it if you are interested in developing your thinking!

Question 26. Basic mental operations, their characteristics. Thinking as a problem-solving process.

Thinking operations

Cognitive operations are interrelated and mutually transitive aspects of the mental pr-sa. These include comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, and generalization.

Comparison is a comparison of objects, phenomena, their sv-in and the discovery of similarities and differences between them. Comparison is the primary form of cognition. Based on the identification of identity and difference, a classification operation becomes possible.

Analysis - mental dismemberment of an object or phenomenon and the identification of its constituent elements. The analysis isolates cognizable phenomena from those random insignificant connections in which they are given to us in perception.

Synthesis is the mental reunification of elements into a holistic structure. Restores the whole dismembered by analysis, revealing the essential connections and relationships of its elements. Analysis and synthesis continuously pass from one to another. Analysis without synthesis leads to the mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of its parts. Synthesis is impossible without analysis, because parts are missing from which it is necessary to restore the whole.

Abstraction is the selection and isolation of any one side or property of an object and phenomenon (essential) and a distraction from the rest. Primitive sensory abstraction already exists in the field of perception (to highlight the form, distracted from the color, to highlight the color, distracted from the form). This is a distraction of some sensory aspects of reality from others. Abstraction, which characterizes thinking, means a distraction from the sensible sv-in the object and the allocation of its insensible objective sv-in, expressed in abstract concepts. This is a release from single, accidental and superficial layers.

Generalization (generalization) is the unification of objects and phenomena into a single whole based on their common essential connections and patterns. Generalization is carried out in concepts, in the meanings of words. Generalizations can be of the simplest character, when objects are grouped on the basis of a separate, random attribute (syncretic generalizations). In the case of complex generalization, the grouping of objects occurs on different grounds. The most difficult are conceptual generalizations, in which the generic and species characteristics of objects are differentiated.

Concretization is an operation inverse to abstraction and generalization. This is a return to the individual specificity of the comprehended object.

Thought operations have the ability to return thought to the starting point). Each operation is the reverse of a pair operation: analysis, synthesis, abstraction and generalization - concretization.

Thinking as a problem-solving process

Thinking is often deployed as a problem-solving process. These tasks can relate to the field of nature, social life, to the person himself. Tasks can arise in the course of a particular practical activity or be specially created (educational tasks or game tasks). The task acts as an object of thinking.

The subject of thinking is the one who solves the problem. We can offer a person to solve a problem, but the problem does not always become his own, i.e. a person may not accept it (busy, uninteresting task, thinking about something else). What is task acceptance? The act of accepting a task is the linking of the task to the motives of the individual. In the psychological literature, it is usually customary to distinguish two groups of motives: external motives of mental activity and internal. This name is conditional, but it has the following meaning: external motives - the task is solved for the sake of achieving a result that is not associated with the cognition of the object, the disclosure of the implicit properties of the object. For example, you solve a problem in order to quickly leave the audience if the following condition is set: whoever decides can go. The same problem can be solved on the basis of intrinsic motivation, i.e. when prompted by cognitive motives - to learn something new, to understand the problem, the method of its solution.

A person can begin to solve a problem based on external motivation (for example, so that others cannot think that he cannot solve it). But gradually the problem takes over him so much that he begins to solve for the sake of the very process of solving the problem. Problem solving activities are always multi-motivated, i.e. motivated by many motives.

The problem to be solved and which is accepted by the subject may initially be solved on the basis of familiar, well-established techniques, or it may seem to a person that he can easily solve it with familiar techniques. However, a person can get stumped - previously used methods do not lead to a solution. A problematic situation arises, for mastering which the individual must find and use new means and techniques. So. A problem situation arises when the subject cannot solve the problem in familiar, already known ways. From the side of the need-motivational sphere, the problematic situation is the emergence of a New cognitive need: "What should I do next, what should I do?" This need arises at a certain stage in solving the problem. However, more often the ratio is the opposite: first a problem situation arises, and then a task is formulated on its basis, that is, the desired is outlined, which can be found by transforming certain conditions. Many things are problematic for the discerning mind. Only for those who are not used to thinking independently, there are no problems: everything seems to be self-evident. The first sign of a thinking person is the ability to see problems where they are

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Thought operations.

In psychology, the following operations of thinking are distinguished (see Fig. 11): analysis, comparison, abstraction, synthesis, concretization, generalization, classification and categorization. With the help of these operations of thinking, penetration into the depths of a particular problem facing a person is carried out, the properties of the elements constituting this problem are considered, and a solution to the problem is found.

Analysis is a mental operation of dismembering a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis - this is the selection in the object of one or another of its sides, elements, properties, connections, relations, etc .; it is the dismemberment of the cognized object into various components. For example, a schoolboy in the classroom of a circle of young technicians, trying to understand the mode of action of a mechanism or machine, first of all highlights the various elements, details of this mechanism and disassembles it into separate parts. So, in the simplest case, he analyzes, dismembers the cognized object.

The analysis reveals the most significant signs. In the course of analyzing an object, its properties, which are the most important, significant, significant, interesting, turn out to be especially strong stimuli and therefore come to the fore. Such stimuli cause an active process of excitation (primarily in the cerebral cortex) and, according to the physiological law of induction, inhibit the differentiation of other properties of the same object, which are weak stimuli. Thus, the physiological basis of the mental process of analysis will be a certain ratio of excitation and inhibition in the higher parts of the brain.

Rice. 11. Thought operations

Synthesis- this is a mental operation that allows you to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. In contrast to analysis, synthesis involves combining elements into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis usually appear in unity. They are inseparable, they cannot exist without each other: analysis, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously with synthesis, and vice versa. Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected.

The indissoluble unity between analysis and synthesis clearly appears in such a cognitive process as comparison. Comparison is a mental operation that consists in comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relations with each other, and in thus identifying the commonality or difference between them. Comparison is characterized as a more elementary process, with which, as a rule, cognition begins. At the initial stages of acquaintance with the surrounding world, various objects are cognized primarily by means of comparison. Any comparison of two or more objects begins with comparing or correlating them with each other, i.e. starts with synthesis. In the course of this synthetic act, the compared phenomena, objects, events, etc. are analyzed. - highlighting the common and the different in them. For example, a child compares different representatives of the mammalian class with each other and, with the help of a teacher, gradually isolates the most common features of these animals. So comparison leads to generalization.

Generalization- This is a mental operation, which consists in the unification of many objects or phenomena on some common basis. In the course of generalization in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis - something in common stands out. These properties common to various objects are of two types: 1) common as similar signs and 2) common as essential signs.

For example, you can find something similar between the most dissimilar objects, in particular, it can be combined into one group, into one class of commonality of the color of cherry, peony, blood, raw meat, boiled crawfish, etc. However, this similarity (commonality) between them still does not in any way express the really essential properties of the listed objects. In this case, the similarity is based on their purely external, only very superficial, insignificant features. Generalizations that are made as a result of such superficial, shallow analysis of objects are of little value and, moreover, constantly lead to errors. Generalization based on a superficial analysis of purely external properties, for example, of a whale, leads to the deeply erroneous conclusion that a whale is not a mammal, but a fish. In this case, a comparison of these objects distinguishes among their common features only similar, but insignificant ones (appearance, fish-like body shape). Conversely, when, as a result of analysis, general properties are isolated as essential, it becomes clear that the whale does not belong to fish, but to mammals. Consequently, every essential property is at the same time common for a given group of homogeneous objects, but not vice versa: not every common (similar) property is essential for a given group of objects. Common essential features are highlighted in the course and as a result of in-depth analysis and synthesis.

By finding similar, identical or common properties and attributes of things, the subject reveals the identity and difference between things. These similar, similar features are then abstracted (isolated, separated) from the totality of other properties and denoted by a word, then they become the content of the person's corresponding ideas about a certain set of objects or phenomena. Abstraction- a mental operation based on abstraction from the insignificant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, the main thing in them. Abstraction- an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from the insignificant sides, properties of objects and the relationship between them in order to identify essential features.

Isolation (abstraction) of common properties of different levels allows a person to establish generic relations in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, to systematize them and thereby build a certain classification. ClassificationCategorization- the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc. –Systematization of subordinate concepts of any area of ​​knowledge or human activity, used to establish links between these concepts or classes of objects. Classification should be distinguished from categorization.

Concretization- this is the movement of thought from the general to the particular. One of the tasks of theoretical thinking is to determine the way of deriving particular manifestations of a systemic object from its universal (essential) foundation, from a certain initial relation in the system. Mental tracing of the process of transformation of the initial relation in the object into its various concrete manifestations is carried out by the method of “ascent from the abstract to the concrete”.

The patterns of the considered operations of thinking are the essence of the basic internal, specific patterns of thinking. On their basis, all external manifestations of mental activity can be explained only.

The mental activity of people is carried out with the help of mental operations: comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction, generalization and concretization... All these operations are different sides of the main activity of thinking - mediation, i.e. disclosure of more and more essential objective connections and relationships between objects, phenomena, facts (1).

Comparison Is a comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences between them. KD Ushinsky considered the operation of comparison to be the basis of understanding. He wrote: "... comparison is the basis of all understanding and all thinking. We know everything in the world only through comparison ... objects similar to it and find in it similarities with the objects most distant from it: then only find out for yourself all the essential features of the object, and this means to understand the object "(2).

Comparing objects or phenomena, we can always notice that in some respects they are similar to each other, in others they are different. The recognition of objects as similar or different depends on which parts or properties of objects are essential for us at a given moment. It often happens that the same objects in some cases are considered similar, in others - different. For example, in a comparative study of domestic animals from the point of view of their benefits for humans, many similar signs are revealed between them, but when studying their structure and origin, many differences are found.

Comparing, a person first of all singles out those features that are important for solving a theoretical or practical life task.

“Comparison,” notes S. L. Rubinstein, “comparing things, phenomena, their properties, reveals the identity and differences. Revealing the identity of some and the differences of other things, comparison leads to their classification. Comparison is often the primary form of cognition: things are first cognized by comparison. At the same time, it is also an elementary form of cognition. Identity and difference, the main categories of rational cognition, appear first as external relations. Deeper cognition requires the disclosure of internal connections, patterns and essential properties. This is carried out by other aspects of the mental process or types of mental operations - primarily by analysis and synthesis ”(3).

Analysis- this is the mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts or the mental isolation of individual properties, traits, qualities in it. Perceiving an object, we can mentally single out one part after another in it and thus find out what parts it consists of. For example, in a plant, we single out the stem, root, flowers, leaves, etc. In this case, analysis is the mental decomposition of the whole into its constituent parts.

Analysis can also be a mental separation of its individual properties, features, sides as a whole. For example, the mental highlighting of the color, shape of an object, individual behavioral features or traits of a person, etc.

Synthesis Is a mental combination of separate parts of objects or a mental combination of their individual properties. If analysis gives knowledge of individual elements, then synthesis, relying on the results of analysis, combining these elements, provides knowledge of the object as a whole. So, when reading in the text, individual letters, words, phrases are highlighted and at the same time they are continuously connected with each other: letters are combined into words, words - into sentences, sentences - into certain sections of the text. Or let us recall a story about any event - individual episodes, their connection, dependence, etc.

Developing on the basis of practical activity and visual perception, analysis and synthesis should be carried out as independent, purely mental operations.

Analysis and synthesis are involved in every complex thought process. For example, by analyzing individual actions, thoughts, feelings of literary heroes or historical figures and as a result of synthesis, an integral characterization of these heroes, these figures is mentally created.

“Analysis without synthesis is flawed; - emphasizes S. L. Rubinstein, - attempts at one-sided application of analysis outside of synthesis lead to a mechanistic reduction of the whole to the sum of its parts. In the same way, synthesis is impossible without analysis, since synthesis must restore the whole in thought in the essential interrelationships of its elements, which are highlighted by analysis ”(4).

Abstraction- this is a mental selection of essential properties and attributes of objects or phenomena while simultaneously abstracting from insignificant attributes and properties. For example, in order to assimilate the proof of the geometric theorem in general form, one must abstract from the particular features of the drawing - it is made with chalk or pencil, what letters indicate the vertices, the absolute length of the sides, etc.

The feature or property of an object, highlighted in the process of abstraction, is thought independently of other features or properties and becomes independent objects of thought. So, for all metals, we can distinguish one property - electrical conductivity. Observing how people, cars, airplanes, animals, rivers, etc. move, we can distinguish one common feature in these objects - movement. With the help of abstraction, we can get abstract concepts - courage, beauty, distance, heaviness, length, width, equality, value, etc.

Generalization- unification of similar objects and phenomena according to common signs (5). Generalization is closely related to abstraction. A person could not generalize without being distracted from the differences in what he generalizes. You cannot mentally unite all the trees, if you do not distract from the differences between them.

When generalizing, those signs that we received during abstraction are taken as a basis, for example, all metals are electrically conductive. Generalization, like abstraction, occurs with the help of words. Any word does not refer to a single object or phenomenon, but to a set of similar single objects. For example, in the concept that we express by the word "fruit", similar (essential) features are combined that are found in apples, pears, plums, etc.

In educational activities, generalization usually manifests itself in definitions, conclusions, rules. It is often difficult for children to generalize, since they are not always able to identify not only general, but essential general features of objects, phenomena, facts.

« Abstraction and generalization, emphasizes S. L. Rubinshtein, - in their original forms rooted in practice and performed in practical actions related to needs, in their higher forms are two interconnected sides of a single thought process of disclosing connections, relations with the help of which thought goes to ever more deep knowledge of objective reality in its essential properties and patterns. This knowledge is accomplished in concepts, judgments and conclusions ”(6, Fig. 1).

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Concretization- this is a mental representation of something single, which corresponds to a particular concept or general position. We are no longer distracted from various signs or properties of objects and phenomena, but, on the contrary, strive to imagine these objects or phenomena in a significant richness of their signs. Essentially, the concrete is always an indication of an example, some kind of illustration of the general. Concretization plays an essential role in the explanation we give to other people. It is especially important in the explanations given by the teacher to the children. Serious consideration should be given to the selection of an example. It can be difficult to give an example. In general, the thought seems clear, but it is not possible to indicate a specific fact.

1. Dubrovina I. V. Psychology / I. V. Dubrovina, E. E. Danilova, A. M. Prikhozhan; Ed. I. V. Dubrovina. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2004. P. 176.
2. Ushinsky KD Selected pedagogical works. In 2 volumes.Vol. 2. - M., 1954.S. 361.
3. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: In 2 volumes. T. I. - M .: Pedagogy, 1989. P. 377.
4. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: In 2 volumes. T. I. - M .: Pedagogy, 1989. P. 378.
5. General psychology / Ed. V.V.Bogoslovsky et al. - M .: Education, 1973.S. 228.
6. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: In 2 volumes. T. I. - M .: Pedagogy, 1989. P. 382.