2. Russia's foreign policy in early XIX v. 2.1. Main directions. At the first stage of the reign of Alexander I, two main directions were clearly defined in the foreign policy of Russia: the European and the Middle East. Russia's participation in Napoleonic Wars... Objectives of Russia

Over the years, Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was subordinated to several key goals. The first Romanovs sought to return as much of the East Slavic lands as possible, taken by Poland and get access to the Baltic (which was controlled by Sweden). It was also during this period that the first wars against Turkey began. This confrontation was at an early stage and reached its climax in the next century. Other regions where Russia strove to respect its interests were the Caucasus and the Far East.

Troubles and war with Poland

The 17th century began tragically for Russia. The Rurik dynasty that ruled the country was stopped. The brother-in-law of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov, was in power. His rights to the throne remained controversial and numerous opponents of the monarch took advantage of this. In 1604, an army under the command of the impostor False Dmitry invaded Russia from Poland. The contender for the throne found every support in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. From this episode, the Russian-Polish war began, which ended only in 1618.

The conflict between the two old neighbors had deep historical roots. Therefore, the entire foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was based on the confrontation with Poland. The rivalry turned into a series of wars. The first of them in the 17th century turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia. Although False Dmitry was overthrown and killed, the Poles later occupied Moscow with their own forces and controlled the Kremlin from 1610 to 1612.

Only the people's militia, assembled by the national heroes Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, succeeded in driving out the invaders. Then the Zemsky Sobor took place, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected as the legitimate tsar. The new dynasty stabilized the situation in the country. Nevertheless, the Poles retained many border lands, including Smolensk. Therefore, all further foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was aimed at returning the primordially Russian cities.

Loss of the Baltic coast

Even Vasily Shuisky, fighting against the Poles, entered into an alliance with Sweden. In the Battle of Klushino in 1610, this coalition was defeated. Russia was paralyzed. The Swedes took advantage of the situation and themselves began to seize its cities near their border. They took control of Ivangorod, Korela, Yam, Gdov, Koporye and, finally, Novgorod.

Swedish expansion stopped at the walls of Pskov and Tikhvin. The sieges of these fortresses ended in fiasco for the Scandinavians. Then the Russian army drove them out of their lands, although some of the fortresses remained in the hands of foreigners. The war with Sweden ended in 1617 with the signing of the Stolbovo Peace. According to it, Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea and paid its neighbor a large indemnity of 20 thousand rubles. At the same time, the Swedes returned Novgorod. The consequence of the Stolbovsky peace was that the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century acquired another important goal. Having recovered from the horrors of the Troubles, the country began a struggle to return to the shores of the Baltic.

Smolensk war

During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) there was only one major armed conflict with another country. It turned out to be the Smolensk war (1632 - 1634) against Poland. This campaign was led by commanders Mikhail Shein, Semyon Prozorovsky and Artemy Izmailov.

Before the war, Moscow diplomats tried to win over Sweden and the Ottoman Empire. The Antipolian coalition never took shape. As a result, they had to fight alone. Nevertheless, Russia's goals in 17th century foreign policy remained the same. The key task (the return of Smolensk) was not completed. The months-long siege of the city ended with Shein's surrender. The parties ended the war with the Polyanovsky Peace. The Polish king Vladislav IV returned Trubchevsk and Serpeysk to Russia, and also renounced the claims to the Russian throne (which had been preserved since the Time of Troubles). For the Romanovs, this was an intermediate success. Further struggle was postponed for the future.

Conflict with Persia

The heir to Mikhail Fedorovich, Alexei, was more active than his father in the international arena. And although his main interests were in the west, he had to face challenges in other regions as well. So, in 1651, a conflict broke out with Persia.

The foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century, in short, began to come into contact with many states with which the Rurikovichs had not yet dealt. In the Caucasus, such new country turned out to be Persia. The troops of her dynasty, the Safavids, attacked the lands controlled by the Russian kingdom. The main struggle was for Dagestan and the Caspian Sea. The campaigns ended in nothing. Alexey Mikhailovich did not want an escalation of the conflict. He sent an embassy to Shah Abbas II and in 1653 the war was stopped, and the status quo was restored on the border. Nevertheless, the Caspian issue persisted. Later on, Peter I led the offensive here in the 18th century.

Accession of Smolensk, Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev

The main success of Alexei Mikhailovich in foreign policy was the next war with Poland (1654 - 1667). The first stage of the campaign turned into an unconditional defeat of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Zaporizhzhya and Moscow troops entered the Ukraine and thus actually reunited the lands of the Eastern Slavs.

In 1656, a temporary Vilna truce was concluded between the parties. It was caused by the Swedish invasion of Poland and the simultaneous outbreak of war between the Swedes and the Russians. In 1660, the Poles tried to launch a counteroffensive, but it ended in failure. The war finally ended in 1667 after the signing of the Andrusov armistice. According to that agreement, the annexation of the Smolensk region, Kiev and the entire Left-Bank Ukraine to Moscow was accomplished. So Alexei Mikhailovich successfully completed the task to which the foreign policy of Russia was subordinated in the 17th century. A brief truce could still be interrupted by the war again, so the conflict demanded further negotiations, which ended already under Princess Sophia.

Fight with Sweden

As mentioned above, having achieved success in Ukraine, Aleksey Mikhailovich decided to try his luck in the Baltic. The long-brewing war of revenge with Sweden began in 1656. She turned out to be two years old. The battles covered Livonia, Finland, Ingermanland and Karelia.

The foreign policy of Russia in the 17th and 18th centuries, in short, set itself the goal of reaching the western seas, since this would allow for better relations with Europe. This is exactly what Alexey Mikhailovich wanted to achieve. In 1658, the Valiesar truce was concluded, according to which Russia retained a part of the lands in Livonia. However, three years later, Moscow diplomats had to agree to the restoration of the old borders in order to avoid a war on two fronts against Sweden and Poland at the same time. This order was consolidated by the Kardis Peace Treaty. The Baltic ports were never received.

War with Turkey

At the end of the Russian-Polish confrontation, the Ottoman Empire intervened in it, which sought to conquer the Right-Bank Ukraine. In the spring of 1672, an army of 300,000 invaded there. She defeated the Poles. Later the Turks and Crimean Tatars also fought against Russia. In particular, the Belgorod defensive line was attacked.

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century turned out to be in many ways a logical prologue to the foreign policy of the 18th century. This pattern is especially traced in the example of the struggle for hegemony in the Black Sea. In the era of Alexei Mikhailovich and his son Fyodor, the Turks tried for the last time to expand their possessions in Ukraine. That war ended in 1681. Turkey and Russia have drawn borders along the Dnieper. The Zaporozhye Sich was also declared independent from Moscow.

Eternal peace with the Commonwealth

All domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was highly dependent on relations with Poland. Periods of war and peace influenced the economy, social situation and the mood of the population. Finally, relations between the two powers were settled in 1682. Countries made Eternal Peace that spring.

The articles of the treaty stipulated the section of the Hetmanate. The Commonwealth abandoned the protectorate, which had existed for a long time over the Zaporozhye Sich. The provisions of the Andrusov armistice were confirmed. Kiev was recognized as the "eternal" part of Russia - for this Moscow paid compensation in the amount of 146 thousand rubles. Subsequently, the treaty allowed the formation of an anti-Swedish coalition during the Great Northern War. Also thanks to the Eternal Peace, Russia and Poland joined forces with the rest of Europe in the fight against Ottoman Empire.

Nerchinsk Treaty

Back in the days of Ivan the Terrible, Russia began the colonization of Siberia. Gradually, the brave peasants, Cossacks, hunters and industrialists moved further and further east. In the 17th century, they reached the Pacific Ocean. Here, the tasks of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century were to establish friendly relations with China.

For a long time, the border between the two states was not marked, which led to various incidents and conflicts. A delegation of diplomats headed by Fyodor Golovin went to the Far East to end the misunderstandings. Russian and Chinese plenipotentiaries met in Nerchinsk. In 1689, they signed a treaty according to which the border between the powers was established along the banks of the Argun River. Russia lost the Amur region and Albazin. The agreement turned out to be a diplomatic defeat for the government of Sofia Alekseevna.

Crimean campaigns

After reconciliation with Poland, Russia's foreign policy at the end of the 17th century was directed towards the Black Sea and Turkey. For a long time, the country was haunted by the raids of the Crimean Khanate, a state that was in vassal relations with the Ottoman Empire. The campaign against the dangerous neighbor was led by Prince Vasily Golitsyn, the favorite of Princess Sophia Alekseevna.

In total, two Crimean campaigns took place (in 1687 and 1689). They did not know how to be very successful. Golitsyn did not capture other people's fortresses. Nevertheless, Russia drew on itself significant forces of the Crimeans and Turks, which helped its European allies in the general anti-Ottoman war. Thanks to this, the Romanovs have significantly increased their international prestige.

Azov campaigns

Sofya Alekseevna was deprived of power by her younger brother Peter, who had grown up and did not want to share powers with the regent. The young tsar continued the work of Golitsyn. His first military experience was associated precisely with the confrontation with Turkey.

In 1695 and 1696. Peter led two campaigns against Azov. On the second attempt, the Turkish fortress was captured. Nearby, the monarch ordered the founding of Taganrog. For his success near Azov, voivode Alexei Shein received the title of Generalissimo. So, two directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century (southern and "Polish") were marked by successes. Now Peter turned his attention to the Baltic. In 1700, he launched the Northern War against Sweden, which immortalized his name. But that was already the history of the 18th century.

Outcomes

The 17th century for Russia was rich in foreign policy events (both successes and failures). The result of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the century was the loss of many territories, including the Baltic coast and the Smolensk region. The reigning dynasty of the Romanovs set about correcting the mistakes of their predecessors.

The peculiarities of Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century turned out to be such that the greatest success awaited it in the Polish direction. Not only was Smolensk returned, but also Kiev and the Left-Bank Ukraine. This is how Moscow began to control everything for the first time. key lands Old Russian state.

The results were more contradictory in the other two directions: the Baltic and the Black Sea. In the north, an attempt at revenge with Sweden failed, and this task fell on the shoulders of Peter I, who, together with his country, entered the new 18th century. The same situation has developed with the southern seas. And if at the end of the 17th century, Peter occupied Azov, then later he lost it, and the task of expansion in this region was completed only under Catherine II. Finally, under the first Romanovs, the colonization of Siberia continued, and the first contacts with China were established in the Far East.

XVII century was very difficult for Russia in terms of foreign policy. Almost all of it went through long wars.

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century: 1) ensuring access to the Baltic and Black Seas; 2) participation in the liberation movement of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples; 3) achieving the security of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimean Khan.

Russia was significantly weakened at the beginning of the century by the Polish-Swedish intervention and the socio-political crisis inside the country, so it did not have the ability to simultaneously solve all three problems. The primary goal of Moscow in the 17th century. was the return of lands that had been torn away from Russia by the Polish-Swedish troops. Particularly important for Russia was the return of Smolensk, which ensured the security of the country's western borders. A favorable situation for the fight against the Commonwealth for the return of Smolensk developed in the 30s. At this time, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was at war with the Ottoman Empire and the Crimea, and the main European powers were drawn into the Thirty Years War.

In 1632, after the death of Sigismund III, a kingdomlessness began in the Commonwealth. Russia took advantage of the situation and started a war with Poland for the liberation of Smolensk. But at this stage, Smolensk could not be returned. The Russian campaign was extremely slow, as the government feared an attack by the Crimean Khan on the southern districts. The siege of the city was delayed, which allowed the Poles to prepare a rebuff. The attack of the Crimean Tatars on Ryazan and Belevsky districts in 1633 demoralized the government troops, which consisted of for the most part from poorly trained slaves and peasants mobilized into the army.

Ukrainian and Belarusian lands were under the rule of the Polish state. The Cossacks who inhabited these lands were the main force of the anti-Polish uprisings. Dissatisfied with the domination of the Poles, the Cossacks organized their center - the Zaporozhye Sich.

In 1648-1654. was going liberation movement Ukrainian people under the leadership of B. Khmelnitsky. This movement also developed in Belarus. B. Khmelnitsky pinned great hopes on the help of Russia. But only in 1653 g. The Zemsky Sobor in Moscow decided to include the Ukrainian lands into Russia and declare war on Poland.

In 1654 g. The Ukrainian Rada took the oath of allegiance to the Russian Tsar. The Commonwealth did not accept this. From 1654 to 1657 a new stage of the Russian-Polish war took place. Under a new peace treaty, Left-Bank Ukraine, together with Kiev, went to Russia. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus were under the rule of Poland.

Russia also received Smolensk, Chernigov, Seversky land. V 1686 g. eternal peace was concluded between Russia and Poland, which consolidated the conquests of Russia.

The end of the war with Poland allowed Russia to repulse the aggressive policy of the Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate.

Russian-Turkish war(1677-1681):

1) August 3, 1677 the Ottoman-Crimean troops began a siege of the Chigirin fortress, located in the Right-Bank Ukraine;

2) in the battle at Buzhin, the Russian-Ukrainian troops utterly defeated the Crimean-Ottoman army, the siege of the fortress was lifted;

3) in July 1678 the Ottomans again laid siege to Chigirin. Russian troops resisted desperately. After the siege and capture of the fortress, ruins remained. Russian and Ukrainian troops withdrew to the Dnieper;

4) the campaign of 1677-1678. very much weakened the Ottomans. On January 13, 1681, the Treaty of Bakhchisarai was concluded, who established a 20-year truce.

The video lesson "Russia's Foreign Policy in the 17th Century" examines the goals, objectives, and directions of Russian foreign policy. The focus is on the main events that left an imprint on the foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. The inconsistency of Russia's foreign policy is emphasized: the first half of the century is the desire to retain what we had, the second half of the century is the desire to return the lost lands in the west and south, as well as the designation of the Russian borders in the east of the country.

Main directions of foreign policy

The foreign policy of Russia throughout the 17th century. was aimed at solving four main tasks: 1. The return of all the primordially Russian lands that were part of the Commonwealth; 2. Ensuring access to the Baltic Sea, lost after the Stolbovo peace treaty; 3. Ensuring reliable security of the southern borders and the fight against the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire for access to the Black Sea and 4. Further advancement to Siberia and the Far East.

Smolensk war (1632-1634)

Rice. 1. Episode of the Smolensk war ()

After the death of the aged Polish king Sigismund III Vasa in June 1632, on the initiative of Patriarch Filaret, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, which decided to start a new war with Poland for the return of the Smolensk and Chernigov lands (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Patriarch Filaret blesses his son ()

V August 1632G. the Russian army was sent to Smolensk, consisting of three regiments - the Bolshoi (Mikhail Shein), the Advanced (Semyon Prozorovsky) and the Watchman (Bogdan Nagoy). In the fall of 1632, they captured Roslavl, Serpeisk, Nevel, Starodub, Trubchevsky, and at the beginning of December began a siege of Smolensk, which was defended by the Polish garrison under the command of Hetman A. Gonsevsky (Fig. 1).

Due to the lack of heavy weapons, the siege of Smolensk was clearly delayed, and in the meantime, by agreement with Warsaw, the Crimean Tatars made a devastating raid on the lands of Ryazan, Belevsky, Kaluga, Serpukhov, Kashirsky and other southern districts, as a result of which M. Shein's army began mass desertion of the nobles.

Meanwhile, the dynastic crisis in Poland ended, and the son of Sigismund, Vladislav IV, was entrenched on the throne, who, at the head of a large army, hastened to help besieged Smolensk. In September 1633, the Polish army forced M. Shein to lift the siege of Smolensk, and then surrounded the remnants of his army east of the Dnieper. In February 1634. M. Shein capitulated, leaving the enemy siege artillery and camp property.

Then Vladislav moved to Moscow, but, having learned that the defense of the capital was held by the Russian army led by princes D. Pozharsky and D. Cherkassky, sat down at the negotiating table, which ended in June 1634. the signing of the Polyanovsk Peace Treaty. Under the terms of this agreement: 1. Vladislav renounced his claims to the Russian throne and recognized Mikhail Romanov as the legitimate tsar; 2. Poland returned all Smolensk and Chernigov cities; 3. Moscow paid Warsaw a huge military indemnity of 20 thousand rubles. The tsar took the defeat in this war very painfully and, according to the boyar's sentence to the governors M. B. Shein and A.V. Izmailov's heads were chopped off on Red Square in Moscow.

Accession of Eastern Siberia and the Far East

V first halfXviiv. Russian Cossacks and "hunting" people continued to develop Eastern Siberia and founded here Yeniseisky (1618), Krasnoyarsky (1628), Bratsky (1630), Kirensky (1631), Yakutsky (1632), Verkholensky (1642) and other forts, which became their strongholds in these harsh, but fertile lands.

V the middleXviiv. The Russian government began to pursue a more active policy on the eastern borders of the state, and for this purpose a new Siberian Order was allocated from the Kazan Order, which for many years was headed by Prince Alexei Nikitich Trubetskoy (1646-1662) and the okolnichi Rodion Matveyevich Streshnev (1662-1680). They became the initiators of many military expeditions, among which a special place was occupied by the expeditions of Vasily Danilovich Poyarkov (1643-1646), Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev (1648) (Fig. 3) and Erofei Pavlovich Khabarov (1649-1653), during which the eastern Pacific coast and southern regions Of the Far East, where the Okhotsk (1646) and Albazinsky (1651) forts were founded.

Rice. 3. Expedition S. Dezhnev ()

TO the endXviiv. the number of military garrisons of the Siberian forts and fortresses already exceeded 60 thousand servicemen and Cossacks. This seriously alarmed neighboring China, which in 1687 attacked the Albazin prison and devastated it. The hostilities with the Manchus continued for two years, until in 1689 the Nerchinsk Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia was losing land along the Amur.

National liberation war of Little Russia against Poland (1648-1653)

New Russian-Polish war (1654-1667) became a direct consequence of the sharp exacerbation of the situation in the Little Russian provinces of the Commonwealth, where the Russian Orthodox population was subjected to cruel national, religious and social oppression. A new stage in the struggle of the Little Russian people against the oppression of Pan Poland is associated with the name of Bogdan Mikhailovich Zinoviev-Khmelnitsky, who in 1648 was elected hetman of the Zaporozhye army and called on the Zaporozhye Cossacks and Ukrainian villagers to start a national liberation war against Pan Poland.

Conventionally, this war can be divided into two main stages:

1.1648-1649- the first stage of the war, which was marked by the defeat of the Polish armies of the hetmans N. Pototsky and M. Kalinovsky in 1648 in the battles at Yellow Waters, near Korsun and Pilyavtsy and the solemn entry of B. Khmelnitsky into Kiev.

V August 1649 after the grand defeat of the Polish crown of the army at Zborov, the new Polish king Jan II Casimir signed the Zboriv peace treaty, which contained the following points: 1. B. Khmelnitsky was recognized as the hetman of Ukraine; 2. Kiev, Bratslav and Chernigov Voivodeships were transferred to his management; 3. On the territory of these voivodeships, the quartering of Polish troops was prohibited; 4. The number of registered Cossacks increased from 20 to 40 thousand sabers;

2.1651-1653- the second stage of the war, which began in June 1651 with the battle near Berestechko, where due to the betrayal of the Crimean Khan Ismail-Girey B. Khmelnitsky suffered a major defeat from the army of Jan Casimir. The consequence of this defeat was the signing in September 1651. Belotserkovsky peace treaty, according to the terms of which: 1. B. Khmelnitsky was deprived of the right to external relations; 2. Only the Kiev Voivodeship remained in his administration; 3. The number of registered Cossacks was again reduced to 20 thousand sabers.

V May 1652G. in the battle near Batog B. Khmelnitsky (Fig. 4) inflicted a major defeat on the army of Hetman M. Kalinovsky. And in October 1653. the Cossacks defeated the Polish crown army near Zhvanets. As a result, Jan Kazimir was forced to sign the Zhvanets peace treaty, which exactly reproduced the conditions of the Zboriv peace.

Rice. 4. Bohdan Khmelnitsky. Painting by A.O. Orlenov

Meanwhile October 1, 1653 in Moscow, the Zemsky Sobor took place, at which a decision was made on the reunification of Little Russia with Russia and the beginning of the war with Poland. To officially formalize this decision, the Great Embassy was sent to Little Russia, headed by the boyar V. Buturlin, and on January 8, 1654, the Great Rada took place in Pereyaslavl, at which all the articles of the treaty were approved that determined the conditions for Little Russia to become part of Russia on the basis of autonomy rights.

5. Russian-Polish war (1654-1667)

In historical science, this war is traditionally divided into three military campaigns:

1. Military campaign 1654-1656 It began in May 1654 with the entry of three Russian armies into the Commonwealth: the first army (Alexei Mikhailovich) moved to Smolensk, the second army (A. Trubetskoy) to Bryansk, and the third army (V. Sheremetyev) to Putivl. In June - September 1654, the Russian armies and Zaporozhye Cossacks, having defeated the armies of the hetmans S. Pototsky and J. Radziwill, occupied Dorogobuzh, Roslavl, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, Gomel, Orsha and other Russian and Belarusian cities. In 1655, the first Russian army captured Minsk, Grodno, Vilno, Kovno and entered the region of Brest, and the second Russian army, together with the Cossacks, defeated the Poles near Lvov.

They decided to take advantage of the military failures of the Polish crown in Stockholm, which forced Moscow and Warsaw in October 1656. to sign the Vilna truce and start joint hostilities against Sweden.

2. Military campaign 1657-1662. After the death of B. Khmelnitsky, Ivan Vygovsky became the new hetman of Ukraine, who betrayed Moscow in 1658. signed the Hadyach Peace Treaty with Warsaw, recognizing himself as a vassal of the Polish crown. At the beginning of 1659, the combined Crimean-Ukrainian army under the command of I. Vyhovsky and Mohammed-Girey inflicted a heavy defeat on the Russian troops near Konotop. In the years 1660-1662. Russian army suffered a number of major setbacks at Gubarevo, Chudnov, Kushliki and Vilno and left the territory of Lithuania and Belarus.

3. Military campaign 1663-1667.

The turning point in the course of the war occurred in 1664-1665 g. when Jan Kazimir suffered a series of major defeats from the Russian-Zaporozhye army (V. Buturlin, I. Bryukhovetsky) at Glukhov, Korsun and Belaya Tserkov. These events, as well as the rebellion of the Polish gentry, forced Jan Kazimir to sit down at the negotiating table. In January 1667. near Smolensk, the Andrusov armistice was signed, under the terms of which the Polish king: a) returned Smolensk and Chernigov lands to Moscow; b) recognized the left-bank Ukraine and Kiev for Moscow; v) agreed to joint management of the Zaporizhzhya Sich. In 1686, these conditions will be confirmed at the conclusion of the "Eternal Peace" with Poland, which will turn from a centuries-old enemy into a long-term ally of Russia.

Russian-Swedish War (1656-1658 / 1661)

Taking advantage of the Russian-Polish war, in the summer of 1655 Sweden began military operations against its southern neighbor and soon captured Poznan, Krakow, Warsaw and other cities. This situation has radically changed the course further developments... Not wanting to strengthen the position of Stockholm in this region, at the initiative of the head of the Ambassadorial Order A. Ordin-Nashchokin and Patriarch Nikon in May 1656, Moscow declared war on the Swedish crown, and the Russian army hastily moved to the Baltic States.

The beginning of the war turned out to be successful for the Russian army. Having seized Dorpat, Noteburg, Marienburg and other fortresses in Estonia, Russian troops approached Riga and laid siege to it. However, having received the news that Charles X was preparing a campaign to Livonia, the siege of Riga had to be lifted and the retreat to Polotsk.

Military campaign 1657-1658 went with varying success: on the one hand, the Russian troops were forced to lift the siege of Narva, and on the other, the Swedes lost Yamburg. Therefore, in 1658. the belligerent parties signed the Valiesar Truce, and then in 1661 - the Kardis Peace Treaty, according to which Russia lost all of its conquests in the Baltic States, and hence access to the Baltic Sea.

Russian-Ottoman and Russian-Crimean relations

V 1672 g. The Crimean-Turkish army invaded Podolia, and Hetman P. Doroshenko, having concluded a military alliance with the Turkish Sultan Mohammed IV, declared war on Poland, which ended with the signing of the Buchach Peace Treaty, according to which the entire territory of Right-Bank Ukraine was transferred to Istanbul.

Rice. 5. Black Sea Cossack ()

V 1676 g. The Russian-Zaporozhye army under the leadership of Prince G. Romodanovsky made a successful campaign against Chigirin, as a result of which P. Doroshenko was deprived of the hetman's mace and Colonel Ivan Samoilovich became the new hetman of Ukraine. As a result of these events, the Russian-Turkish war (1677-1681) began. In August 1677, the enemy began a siege of Chigirin, the defense of which was led by Prince I. Rzhevsky. New September 1677, the Russian army under the command of G. Romodanovsky and I. Samoilovich defeated the Crimean Turkish army at Buzhin and put them to flight.

The following year, the Crimean Ottoman army invaded Ukraine again. V August 1678G. the enemy captured Chigirin, but he did not succeed in crossing the Dnieper. After several local skirmishes, the belligerents sat down at the negotiating table, and in January 1681G. the Bakhchisarai peace treaty was signed, under the terms of which: a) Istanbul and Bakhchisarai recognized Kiev and the Left-Bank Ukraine for Moscow; b) Right-bank Ukraine remained under the rule of the Sultan; v) The Black Sea lands were declared neutral and were not subject to settlement by subjects of Russia and Crimea.

V 1686, after signing the "Eternal Peace" with Poland, Russia joined the anti-Ottoman "Holy League", and in May 1687. the Russian-Ukrainian army under the command of Prince V.V. Golitsyn and hetman I. Samoilovich took part in the First Crimean campaign, which ended in vain because of his ugly preparation.

In February 1689. The Russian-Ukrainian army under the command of Prince V. Golitsyn began the Second Crimean campaign. This time the campaign was much better prepared, and the troops managed to reach Perekop. However, V. Golitsyn was unable to break through the enemy's defenses, and, "having a lot of sleep," turned back.

Logical continuation Crimean campaigns were the Azov campaigns of Peter I 1695-1696. In May 1695. the Russian army under the command of F.A. Golovin, P.K. Gordon and F. Ya. Lefort went on a campaign against Azov, which closed the exit to the Azov and Black seas. In June 1695. Russian regiments began a siege of Azov, which had to be lifted three months later, since the Russian army was never able to completely block it. Thus, the first Azov campaign ended in vain.

V May 1696G. the Russian army under the command of Tsar Peter, A.S. Shein and F. Ya. Leforta began the Second Azov campaign. This time, the fortress was surrounded not only from land, but also from the sea, where several dozen galleys and hundreds of Cossack plows reliably blocked it, and in July 1696 Azov was taken.

V July 1700 clerk E.I.Ukraintsev signed the Constantinople (Istanbul) peace treaty with the Turks, according to which Azov was recognized for Russia.

References on the topic "Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century":

1. Volkov V.A. Wars and troops of the Moscow state: late 15th - first half of the 17th century. - M., 1999.
2. Grekov I.B. Reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654 - M., 1954.
3. Rogozhin N.M. Ambassadorial order: the cradle of Russian diplomacy. - M., 2003.
4. Nikitin N.I. Siberian epic of the 17th century. - M., 1957.
5. Chernov V.A. Armed forces of the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries. - M., 1954.

1. Federacia.ru ().
2. Rusizn.ru ().
3. Admin.smolensk.ru ().
4. Vokrugsveta.ru ().
5. Abc-people.com ().

Foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century.

The main tasks and directions of Russia's foreign policy.

The needs of Russia's economic, political and cultural development were also determined by its main foreign policy tasks.

Return of territories lost during the Troubles, in the future - the annexation of the Ukrainian and other lands that were part of Ancient Rus. In addition to religious and national impulses pushing to unite with the related Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, the desire to obtain new arable land played a significant role, which was due to the extensive nature of agriculture, as well as the desire of the state to increase the number of civil servants and taxpayers.

Struggle for access to the Baltic and Black Seas was conditioned, on the one hand, by the desire of Russia to establish economic ties with Europe, without which it was impossible to overcome its backwardness, and, on the other hand, by the need to ensure the security of the southern borders, to protect them from the predatory raids of the vassal of the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khan.

Further advance east for the purpose of exploitation natural resources Siberia (the Russian people sought to enrich themselves by catching sable, which had already been exterminated in the European part, but continued to be the main object of export trade) and the establishment of a "natural border" on Pacific... Some of the settlers were those who fled from a heavy tax burden or serfdom. In addition, in the movement to the east, the desire of the Old Believers to escape from persecution and to get the opportunity to practice their faith was manifested.

But there were some obstacles solving these foreign policy tasks and they consisted in the following:

- Economic and military backwardness. In Western Europe, the main striking force was hired professional infantry, reinforced with field artillery. In Russia, the basis of the army continued to be the noble cavalry, who successfully fought the "fragments" of the Golden Horde, but were unable to resist the advanced armies of Europe.

- Dependence on imports of weapons. The Russian government tried to provide rearmament and tactical retraining of the army by importing weapons and hiring foreign officers, which made it dependent on the leading European countries. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the only seaport of Russia - Arkhangelsk - was extremely vulnerable on the part of Sweden, which continued to lay claim to the northern Russian lands. These circumstances predetermined the aggravation of Russian-Swedish relations.

- Diplomatic and cultural isolation of Russia , which in the West was perceived as an eastern backward country, which was of interest only as an object of expansion. The political border of Europe at that time ran along the Dnieper.

Thus, a vicious circle developed: Russia's economic and military lagging behind, its cultural isolation was largely caused by its isolation from sea trade communications, but it was possible to make a breakthrough, i.e. overcome the Turkish-Polish-Swedish barrier that stood on its way to Europe. only by creating a powerful army and breaking the diplomatic blockade.

WESTERN DIRECTION. FIGHT FOR UKRAINE.

Smolensk war 1632 - 1634 Russia, having poorly calculated its forces, began a war with the Commonwealth for the revision of the Deulinsky agreements - ( v1618 g. according to the Deulinsky agreement, Russia lost the Smolensk and Seversk lands.) What was Russia counting on, being not ready for war? Taking advantage of the international situation, she hoped that after the death of Sigismund III, internal strife would begin in the Commonwealth, which did not happen. In addition, the Polish king Vladislav managed to negotiate with Crimean Tatars about joint actions. As a result, due to the slowness of the Russian troops led by boyar M.B. Shein, and most importantly, because of the weakness of the army, made up mainly of service people, who, having learned about the threat of the Crimean detachments moving deep into Russia, began to leave the army and go to their estates, to July 1634 between Russia and Poland was signed the Polyanovsk Peace Treaty. On it, the cities captured by the Russians at the initial stage of the war were returned to Poland, but at the same time Vladislav renounced his claims to the Russian throne.

Liberation movement in Ukraine. Accession of Ukraine to Russia. V 1648 g ... in Ukraine, another uprising broke out, caused by social oppression, political, religious and national inequality, which was experienced by the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox population, being part of Catholic Rzeczpospolita. The uprising was led by a chosen one hetman Bohdan Khmelnitsky, under whose leadership the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people continued with varying degrees of success from 1648 to 1654 B. Khmelnitsky more than once asked for help from the Russian government, expressing Ukraine's readiness to join Russia. The Russian government, realizing that this would lead to a war with the Commonwealth, for which it was not ready, did not dare to satisfy the request of the hetman. However, after another defeat of the rebels, it became clear that for the final liberation, Ukraine needs help from Russia, which after decisions of the Zemsky Sobor 1653. on the acceptance of Ukraine "under the high hand" of the Russian tsar, in October 1653 declared war on the Commonwealth... It should be noted that this decision was also influenced by the influence of the idea of ​​"Moscow - the third Rome", which intensified in connection with the church reform. After Pereyaslavskaya Rada in January 1654 . Ukraine became part of Russia on the rightsautonomy - the tsarist government recognized the election of the Ukrainian hetman and the right to operate local self-government authorities that arose during the liberation struggles.

REASONS FOR UKRAINE'S JOINING TO RUSSIA.

Religious and ethnic community of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples.

Their common historical past and joint struggle with external enemies.

Specific historical situation in the middle. 17th century, when for Ukraine the preservation of independence seemed unrealistic and had to choose the "least evil", i.e. to join (and for many, to reunite) with Russia, which is close in culture and faith, which has also promised it to preserve its internal independence.

The accession was also in the interests of Russia, as mentioned above.

3. War with Poland and Sweden. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1653 caused a war with Poland1654 - 1667 On the the first stage of the Russian-Polish war Russian troops were successful. They captured Smolensk and a number of cities in Belarus, while meeting the support of the local population. But Sweden took advantage of Poland's failures, striving for hegemony in the region and turning the Baltic Sea into a "Swedish lake". In addition, the Swedes did not want the strengthening of Russia, and in 1655 their troops occupied Warsaw. A strong Sweden posed a greater danger to Russia than a shattered Poland, therefore, having concluded with her (with Poland) truce, Russia entered the war with Sweden. But the rivalry with one of the most advanced armies in Europe was beyond the strength of the Russian troops. Due to the impossibility of continuing the war Russia in 1661 went to the signing of the Kardis Peace, according to which she returned the conquered lands in Livonia and again lost access to the sea - i.e. the conditions of the Stolbovsky peace were restored. Poland having received a respite, she managed to regain her strength and continue the war with Russia. In fact, the second stage of the Russian-Polish war began. The war became protracted, successes were replaced by defeats. In addition, after the death of Khmelnytsky, part of the Cossack leadership sided with Poland. As a result, in 1667 Russia achieved the signing of the Andrusov armistice, on which she returned to Smolensk and passed the lands of the Left-Bank Ukraine. Kiev, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was given for two years, but was never returned to Poland. The terms of this truce were enshrined "Eternal peace" in 1686, which secured Kiev for Russia and became its major diplomatic victory.

4. Relations of Russia with Crimea and the Ottoman Empire.

- Russian-Turkish war 1677-1681 The reunification of part of Ukraine with Russia provoked opposition Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire standing behind him, which unleashed a war against Russia. Russian-Ukrainian troops in 1677... managed to defend a strategically important Chigirin fortress, besieged by superior enemy forces. The stubborn resistance of Russia forced the weakened by this time Porto to sign a 20-year truce with Russia in Bakhchisarai in 1681 , according to which its acquisitions were recognized, and the lands between the Dnieper and the Bug were declared neutral.

- European countries in the face of Ottoman expansion, they tried to combine their efforts.In 1684 was created Holy league - coalition as part of Austria, Poland and Venice, counting on the support of Russia. It was this interest that pushed Poland to sign the "Eternal Peace" and abandon Kiev (as discussed above). This led to a breakthrough in the diplomatic isolation of Russia and its rapprochement with Poland, which then contributed to the solution of the main foreign policy task - ensuring access to the sea. In committing itself to the Holy League, the Moscow government tore apart 20 year armistice of Bakhchisarai in 1681 and in 1686 declared war on the Port. But attempts V. V. Golitsyna in 1687 and 1689 capture the Crimea ended in failure, although they helped the allies on the western front.

5. East direction.

The movement to the east was less stressful for the country. During all 17th century Russian explorers - V. Poyarkov, F. Popov, S. Dezhnev, E. Khabarov and others, conducting their intelligence activities, have moved from Western Siberia up to the shores of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. As they advanced, they created strong points: Krasnoyarsk prison, Bratsk prison, Yakutsk prison, Irkutsk winter quarters, etc. From the local population that became part of Russia, they collected yasak - fur tax. Simultaneously began peasant colonization arable lands of southern Siberia... By the end of the 17th century. the Russian population of the region was 150 thousand people.

Conclusions.

During the 17th century, Russia was inconsistent, periodically retreating and accumulating forces, but nevertheless solved the tasks within its power. But the overall result of her foreign policy was small. In addition, all the acquisitions went to her with the maximum exertion of forces and huge financial costs. The main strategic tasks - gaining access to the seas and reuniting Russian lands - remained unresolved.