The term "system" is defined using such terms as "connection" (or "relationship"), "element", "whole", "unity". In purely verbal formulations, one can still find agreement, but representatives of different sciences put such different meanings into these words that in fact their agreement is only visible: for some, “connection” is simply a geometric relationship of parts; for others ¾ dependence between parts or sides of the whole; some will call a geometric relationship "structure", others will reduce it to a "set" of elements.

Often theoretical definitions diverge from empirical material. For example, the famous English cyberneticist St. Beer calls the interconnection of the most diverse elements a system, and as an example he cites billiards, in which there are actually no interconnections, but only the functional unity of the whole. Therefore, it would probably be most correct to say that at present there are no satisfactory, sufficiently widely accepted concepts of system and structure.

The society for the development of a "general systems theory" could not offer such concepts either. G.H. Good and R.E. Macall, who analyze "large-scale" systems, refuse to make any attempt to pinpoint the boundaries that delineate the systems they consider. "As is usually the case in any area, ¾ they note, ¾ these borders run through wide undefined territories and the search for their exact position would cause great but fruitless disputes." And in fact, the position they express is the only one widely held among those who study specific systems and structures.

Based on modern works, various objects of reality can be considered systems: 1) material and ideal objects; 2) ideal models and designs built by people on their basis; 3) ideal models; 4) material objects built by people:

If we agree with Averyanov's statement that "systematicity is an attributive property of matter", then one should proceed from the first concept. When using the broadest approach, everything seems to be systemic. In this case, the system will be space, science, and a machine built on the basis of science. This approach leads to a simplification of the content of the system and reduces the scientific problem to the knowledge of the system of each object.

"Material systems consist of objects that exist objectively, ideal systems consist of ideal objects that exist only in consciousness" . There is an opinion that only the objective can be considered a system. "A system is, first of all, not a symbolic model of an object, but the object itself, taken in the process of development" .

The recognition of non-man-made objects of reality by systems in itself does little. The effect of consistency involves the construction of a system information symbolic model of a given object. Only after a certain subjectivization of the objective can the latter really become a "system" and can be used in practical activity.

"The question is not whether there is movement, but how to express it in the logic of concepts." Accordingly, not the recognition of the object of reality by the system, but how to express its systemic nature in concepts. Consistency in itself becomes systematic for people only after people master the method of system reproduction in the logic of the concepts of system objects.

There are concepts whose authors recognize only subjective phenomena as systemic. "The real object exists independently of us, objectively, and the system is a subjective construction" . In this case, before the advent of intelligent subjects, there were no systems. People themselves, as biological beings, are not systemic. Only the products of human labor can be systemic, systemicity is the style of an ideal reflection of the world. In this case, two concepts are possible. In one case, only the ideal is recognized as systemic, and in the other, only the material. Any ideal (non-materialized and materialized) can be considered as a system.

When choosing one of these approaches, many issues of its interpretation will be solved differently. In accordance with the first, everything real can be a system, and in accordance with the second approach, the system is a certain level of development of an ideal reflection of the ordered and material devices created on their basis.

Different approaches can be considered justified to some extent. In the current practice of determining terms, more cannot be achieved. Therefore, moving away from controversy on this issue, let us pay attention, first of all, to the subordination of the types of the human-created systemic world.

"... Until the end of the last century, natural science was predominantly a collecting science, a science of finished objects. In our century, it has become in essence an ordering science, a science of processes, the origin and development of these objects and the connection that connects these processes of nature into one great whole". Difficulties "only then begin when they begin to consider and organize the material ...".

Consideration of the orderliness of the material should be based on a systematic approach to it. In this case, one can trace the growth in the ordering of the material and its complexity during the transition to more developed levels of the material. Orderliness should be considered at each level of the material with a more specific subordination of objects. Here one can also observe an increase in complexity and ordering, although in some cases reverse processes also take place, i.e. growth of entropy based on destruction.

In general, the nature of the transitions between chaos and order can be of various kinds. The scientific understanding of these transitions presupposes the allocation of a hierarchical system of terminological expression of these transitions.

Considering nature from the point of view of order in it, one can distinguish a number of its types, parts. Parts of nature with the least order exist in a chaotic state, and with the maximum order they represent systems. The ordered arose out of the disordered. Chaos turns into order.

The trend of complication, increase in the organization of the system is denoted by the term negentropy. The tendency of disorganization, simplification of the system, destruction or death of systems has received the name of entropy.

Concerning the subordination of the elements of nature from the point of view of its orderliness, ambiguous judgments have been made. It is difficult to agree that entropy and chaos are growing in nature. The entropy decreases, i.e. the negentropy and orderliness grow. In our world, not destructive, but creative processes prevail. Therefore, entropy decreases and order increases. At the same time, it is quite possible to assume that in nature there is not a permanent tendency for the growth of order, but a cyclicity, when in some periods entropy prevails, in others negentropy tendencies. But there is no doubt that in order for entropy (ie, destructive, destructive) processes to take place, it is necessary that a reserve of order was created in the previous period, and the degree of order was higher. This can only be the result of an increase in order in the previous period of time, when an appropriate level (reserve) of organization must be created.

The degree of orderliness of everything material is growing, including growing at our material level, at least in our historical period and in "our corner of the universe." "Society (the highest form of development of the negentropic tendency of wildlife" .

Systematic ordering of the material can only be the result of expedient activity. However, in addition to such a strict, but not fully substantiated approach, the term system can also be used for material objects that have arisen spontaneously.

Chaos passes into order through a certain process, which can be divided into a number of states: a set, a set, a complex, an organism, a system, a cladogram.

A set is a collection that has a common specific property. When considering a set, attention is paid to this common element, which to some extent arranges this set;

A collection is a series of objects that make up a unity. It may just be a mechanical unit;

Complex - any part of reality, considered as an independent, integral object;

An organism is a certain kind of totality and multitude, inherent in living beings and characterized by unity, integrity;

The system is a product of the creative activity of people who have not sufficiently understood the very essence of systemicity;

The cladogram is a real, pragmatic system that underlies biology and is a universal method for explaining reality based on dialectical logic.

The system consists of heterogeneous elements. In the system, the components differ in functional features. The degree of development of the systemic nature of each object of reality is determined by the number of constituent elements (the more of them, the more developed the system), the degree of their functional difference, integration.

The emergence of consistency leads to an increase in orderliness and represents a qualitative leap in the growth of orderliness. However, the ordering at the system level continues to grow and may be different. At the same time, the degree of difference in the ordering of system objects is also different. Progress consists in the emergence of more and more ordered systems.

The ideal is not uniformly ordered. The progress of ways of ordering the ideal is characterized in the same way as any other developing phenomenon.

The system of ideal ordering methods consists of different elements, not equally developed. They should be viewed through the prism of the most developed way. The key points in the development of the integration process in the ideal have not been widely recognized, so their understanding should be given special attention.

Ordering is the initial integration of the ideal. In this case, there is at least some sort of ordering of the ideal, for example, the ordering of nails by size.

Cataloging is a more complex ordering system based on the ordering of object names, such as in a dictionary or library.

Grouping - ordering objects according to a certain attribute.

Typification can be represented as a more developed kind of ordering based on the formation of a set of forms.

Classification is a more advanced way of integration. There are more requirements for it than for typing.

Systematization is the most developed type of integration in comparison with ordering, typification and classification. Systematics is a classification based on the development of an object.

In the realm of reality, where its elements are not amenable to ordering on the basis of universal principles of systematization, one should give them a different ordering, even cataloging - a simple list of key issues.

Systematization is an element, first of all, of scientific life; systematization is an ideal way of manifesting the orderliness of the material. On this basis, the most developed part of the material arises - the reality systemically built by people. The material is initially ordered spontaneously. At a certain stage in the ordering of the material, it begins to be ideally reflected. At a certain stage in the development of the material and ideal, systematization becomes the main way of reflecting the ordering material and the existence of a certain part of it.

Ordering is not systematization. Systematization is not just ordering, but represents the ordering of the ideal for a more adequate reflection of the material and the construction of material systems. Systematization is not a property of the material itself, but a property of the ideal and the result of human activity. The orderliness of the material is more adequately reflected in the ideal when the latter becomes systemic. Usually people systematize not the material, but the ideal expression of the material. The philatelist organizes the stamps, placing them in a certain order. This represents the systematization of the material on the basis of the systematized ideal. Usually taxonomists rearrange relative to each other not material objects, but their ideal expression. Figuratively speaking, the system of animals is built on paper, and not in the form of a zoo, where the biospecies themselves are located relative to each other. The systematics of the ideal is the starting point for the conscious ordering of material objects.

The systematization of the material is a special case of systematization and can be understood as secondary to the systematization of the ideal expression of the material.

All objects of reality can be divided into several types: self-developing, self-increasing, self-organizing, self-governing.

The degree of order increases in the specified sequence. The first two forms of objects are generally pre-organic, and the next two are associated with life. At the same time, self-governing objects, in our opinion, are associated exclusively with superorganismal connections of a higher type, i.e. with human society.

Self-managed objects are diverse. They are based on the fact that their constituent elements are ideal systems that reflect reality. Self-managed objects cannot exist without ideal subsystems. The transition from self-organizing to self-managing objects is associated with the construction of ideal systems.

Systematization is a way of building, first of all, ideal systems. At the same time, it is believed that the systematization of the ideal is the starting point for the construction of material system objects (machines, devices, etc.).

When considering the systematization of the ideal, one should take into account the position of F. Engels, who noted that "empirical natural science has accumulated such a mass of positive material that in each individual area of ​​\u200b\u200bresearch it has become downright irremovable the need to arrange this material systematically and in accordance with its internal connection" .

"So, systemicity as a principle of cognition forms only one of the facets of the process of theoretical study of reality."

The generality of the concept of "system" makes it difficult to adequately formalize it, but in general it can be represented as a holistic formation, a complex of interrelated elements that, due to their unity, have qualitatively new characteristics that are relatively indifferent to the external environment, and each system acts as an element of a system of a higher order, and any element of the system is a system of a lower order.

It is very important that the system is “a complex of selectively involved components, in which the interaction and relationship acquires the character of the interaction of components to obtain a focused useful result” (P.K. Anokhin).

The functional system is characterized by three fundamental points: firstly, only specially selected components are involved in the totality; secondly, the components do not just interact, but interact co act for something concrete and definite; thirdly, obtaining a useful result is recorded as a system-forming factor.

The salient features of the system are:

1) the presence of interconnected parts in the object;

2) interaction between parts of the object;

3) the orderliness of this interaction to achieve the overall goal of the system.

All systems have indispensable attributes (modifying the position of V. G. Afanasiev):

Integrative qualities;

Components and elements of the system;

structure;

General goal and a set of sub-goals;

Relationships between elements;

Functions of the system and its components;

Inclusion in a more complex system in the status of a component and an element;

Historicity;

Internal and external disturbing influences;

System management structure;

Information.

The basic attribute of the system is the element of the system. An element is understood as the simplest indivisible part of the system, which, in the opinion of the subject of action (cognition), has a certain integrity, the state and functional features of which can be measured and described in terms, and which can have relations with other parts of the totality under consideration, as well as with its environment ( environment). In addition to the functional characteristics, minimality is defined by the subject of research itself as a sufficient part that satisfies the cognitive and transformative needs.

1. elastic element- resisting external influences, not perceiving them, capable only of unambiguous transmission

In the absence of a change in i, the element is at rest.

2. reflective element- has an internal movement and performs an internal transformation according to some law and algorithm.

A special case of element reflexivity is neutral.

3. Element - consumer- perceives the impact in these conditions without the formation of a directional effect.

4. Element - source- forms under these conditions the directed effect "P" in the absence of a compelling external influence.

5. Polyreceptor element - a reflexive element that forms a directional influence, subject to the perception of several forcing influences.

6. Polyeffector element- a reflexive element that forms influences in several directions when one compelling influence is perceived.

7. Polyelement- a reflexive element that forms influences in several directions, subject to the perception of several external influences.

8. Polysource - a source that, under given conditions, influences in several directions.

9. Polyconsumer- a consumer who perceives the impact of several external links.

The second most important attribute of the system is the relationship between elements or connections. In another way, an interelemental connection can be defined as each of the degrees of freedom of a given element, actually implemented in the form of a certain relationship, interaction with other elements of a given system, as well as with its environment. This concept is included in any definition of a system and ensures the emergence and preservation of the structure and integral properties of the system, characterizes its structure and functioning. It is assumed that links exist between all system elements and subsystems.

Relationships can be:

1. neutral , when:

1 element 2 element

where but, in- force of influence;

but = in but opposite in direction.

Peculiarities:

Such a relationship is not static.

With any changes, the impact and reaction remain equal in magnitude at each considered moment of their relationship, their geometric sum is always equal to zero at these moments.

Relative immobility (static) of elements is a special case of neutrality, when the magnitudes of the impact and counteraction are unchanged in the considered period of time.

The counteraction is considered complete if it is equal in magnitude to the impact in the considered range of its changes.

2. functional , when:

1)1 element 2 element

2)1 element 2 element

where but, in- force of influence.

Peculiarities:

The influencing element has a directed effect (the presence of effector properties) in relation to the counteracting one.

The opposing element has a receptor effect (the presence of receptor properties), that is, the ability to perceive external influences.

Note. In real conditions, every element to some extent in various respects has both effector and receptor properties.

A neutral bond can turn into a functional one with incomplete opposition from one of the parties to the interaction.

As a result of such relationships in case 2.1 in= 0, the impact force of the first element is maximum and the second element can change structurally and functionally; in case 2.2 a > b, the impact force of the first element exceeds the reaction force of the second element, which can also lead to structural and functional changes in the second element of the system .

The network of connections is quite extensive (according to the classification of I. V. Blauberg and E. G. Yudin):

Interaction links;

Links of genesis;

Conversion links;

Building connections;

Communications functioning;

Development links;

Control connections.

Relations can be divided according to the nature of their material implementation into:

1) real;

2) energy;

3) information;

according to their place and structure:

1) straight;

2) reverse;

by the nature of their manifestation:

1) deterministic;

2) probabilistic;

3) chaotic;

4) continuous;

5) random;

6) regular;

7) irregular.

Features: these classifications refer to specific implementations of systems and do not characterize them as functional formations. Functionality is revealed in the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between material formations.

The third attribute of the system is a component (subsystem), consisting of a number of system elements that can be combined according to similar functional manifestations. The system can have a different number of components. It depends on the main functions of the system (internal and external).

The system can be divided into elements not immediately, but by successive division into subsystems. Subsystems themselves are systems and, therefore, everything that is said about the system, including its integrity, applies to them. This subsystem differs from a simple collection of elements that are not united by purpose and the property of integrity.

The fourth attribute of the system is the structure of the system. The structure is understood as a set of connections, relationships between all elements and components of the system, between the system and the external environment. These relationships ensure the existence of the system and its basic properties. Structural properties are relatively independent of the elements and can act as an invariant in the transition from one system to another, transferring the patterns identified in one of them to another (even if these systems have different physical natures). The structure can be represented by a graphical representation, a set-theoretic relation, in the form of matrices. The type of system representation depends on the purpose of the display.

Features of the definition of the concept of "structure" of the system:

1. The structure of all possible relationships in the considered set differs from the structure of the system being formed, such a structure is called the complete structure of the object.

2. The form of the structure directly depends on the functional section as a specific form of reaction of a given set to a specific external influence.

Systems as functional material formations with a certain global effect are characterized by the following types of structures:

1. The internal structure of an object is a set of relationships between components without taking into account their external relationships.

2. Functional structure - a set of relationships directly related to the functioning of each element in a given system in the direction of the formation of its global effect.

3. Absolute structure - a really possible structure of the external whole, considered by the subject as a concretely cognizable object.

Based on the most important characteristics of functional systems, there are two main classes of system structures:

Normal Structures- structures in which all relations and their directions are preserved, that is:

1) the elements of the system are identified at the structural level that is being considered;

2) these elements are unchanged and are the initial structural formations from the point of view of the subject;

3) the complete structure of the object remains unchanged in a given period of time and under given conditions;

4) the norm of the existence of the structure remains unchanged.

Dynamic Structures- structures that change over time, that is:

1) the number and direction of relations between the elements of the system changes;

2) in the system, in the established links between the elements, there is an internal movement;

3) the elementary composition of the system changes.

The dynamics of the structure reflects the dynamics of the system. A functional system can be considered changeable only under the condition of structural rearrangements while maintaining the possible functionality of each connection, including newly formed ones.

The change in the elementary composition of the system is a secondary factor.

The concepts of dynamic structure and dynamic system are not identical. The dynamic system has a larger volume, since the dynamism of the system is associated, in addition to changes in the structure, with possible changes in the norms of the state of its elements and elemental composition. In this way, deeper changes can occur than just in the relationships between the elements.

The concepts of normal and dynamic structures, related to one system, are mutually negating concepts, i.e., the same system cannot have both a normal and a dynamic structure in the same time interval.

Destruction of the normal structure does not mean destruction in the sense of withering away, destruction of the system. The main criterion of consistency lies in the global effect of the system, and not in the structure.

Therefore, the dynamic structure, denying the normal one, reflects the essence of the system changing in this respect, but not the cessation of its existence. The formation of a global effect of the system is possible under the conditions of ongoing changes.

Thus, dynamic systems are systems with a variable structure with a relative certainty of their external manifestations, considered as their global effect.

If we consider the totality of all connections within the system, then such a structure will be internal. If we consider the totality of all connections both within the system and the system with the external environment, such a structure is called a complete structure. A qualitative system is a single whole, consisting of many different components, organized at different levels in a special kind of integrity.

The fifth attribute of the system is the functions understood as activity, work, external manifestation of the properties of an object in a given system of relations. Functions are classified according to various criteria depending on the goals of the manager or researcher.

A very important attribute of the system is the properties, understood as the qualities of the parameters of objects, that is, the external manifestations of the method by which knowledge about the object is obtained. Properties make it possible to describe the objects of the system quantitatively, expressing them in units that have a certain dimension. However, they can change as a result of the functioning of the system.

One of the key attributes of the system is the goal that underlies the development of the system and ensures its purposefulness (expediency). The goal can be defined as the desired result of activity, achievable within a certain time interval. The goal becomes a task facing the system if the deadline for achieving it is specified and the quantitative characteristics of the desired result are specified. The goal is achieved as a result of solving a problem or a series of problems, if the original goal can be divided into a certain set of simpler (private) subtasks.

System approach in management

The concept and types of systems. The essence of the system approach and system analysis in management. Control system as an object of research. The main elements of the control system. Functional division of managerial labor. The number of intermediate levels of the hierarchical control system. Number of leaders at each intermediate level. The number and professional composition of management personnel under each head. The matrix of subordination of managers. The quality of the management system. Quality criterion. Control Systems Research: Methodology and Process. Research and design of organizational structures of management.

A system is a set of interdependent elements that form a single whole; the whole performs some function. In a system, all its elements must be interdependent and/or interacting. The most diverse elements can be combined into a “whole”, but this “whole” is not yet a system until the mechanism of their interaction is formed. Even Aristotle wrote that the hand, separated from the body, is no longer a hand. And Hegel figuratively put it this way: only a corpse has parts, and the body has a new quality: it lives.

The world as a whole is a complex system, which in turn consists of many large and small systems. System is the opposite of chaos.

Systems take a variety of forms. Major systems include:

biological;

Technological;

Social (including socio-economic).

Socio-economic systems include enterprises, industries, municipalities, regions, etc. The system always reacts to external perturbations and tends to return to a state of equilibrium. However, if under the influence of external forces the system moves far from the equilibrium state, then it can become unstable and not return to the equilibrium state. At a certain point (bifurcation point), the behavior of the system becomes undefined. Sometimes even a slight impact on the system can lead to significant consequences, and then the system passes into a new quality. Moreover, this transition is carried out in leaps and bounds.

A great contribution to the development of systems theory was made by the Russian philosopher and economist A. A. Bogdanov (1873-1928), the author of the work “General Organizational Science (Tectology)”. He developed the foundations of the theory of the structure of systems and substantiated the general laws of their development. Bogdanov believed that the subject of study of tektology should be the organizational principles and laws common to all systems - the conscious activity of people, their mental and physical complexes, living and dead nature. When developing the concepts of tectology, Bogdanov expressed a number of new ideas, including the concepts of a control and controlled system, feedback, modeling, later developed by cybernetics and general systems theory, formulated and substantiated the universal law of physiological energy costs.

Shiroko knows the theory of functional systems developed by P. K. Anokhin, which considers the activity of the organism as a whole as a single system. An adapted, properly functioning system is able to reject an extra element, but if any functional part of it fails, then the operation of the system as a whole will be threatened.

Man as a biological being is a system. In addition, as a participant in the production process, he is a component of another system called sociotechnical.

Any system can be considered as a subsystem of some larger system. So, the municipality is a subsystem of the subject of the federation. General features for the allocation of subsystems (parts) in social systems are the following:

Subsystems should be such that they can have a significant impact on the achievement of the final results of the system;

Subsystems must be tied to the whole with the help of certain relations of each part to some general system characteristic (or characteristics) that has the necessary and logical functional connection with the performance of general system tasks;

Subsystems should be appropriately linked to the behavior of all elements of the system and reflect the constant functioning of the mutual relations established for individual elements of the system through its subsystems with the environment.

The subsystem is formed from elements that are the structure-forming part of any system. For example, an enterprise is an element of an industry.

Any social system consists of two independent, but interconnected subsystems: managed and managing. The managed subsystem includes all elements that provide the direct process of creating material and spiritual wealth or providing services. The control subsystem includes all elements that ensure the process of purposeful impact on groups of people and resources of the controlled subsystem. One of the most important elements of the control subsystem is the organizational structure of management.

Communication between the control and managed systems is carried out with the help of information that serves as the basis for the development of managerial decisions and actions coming from the control system to the controlled one for execution.

Any social system is self-governing. At the same time, in the process of management, it experiences external influences. External and internal influences in any system are closely interconnected and mutually determined: the more significant one is, the less the role of the other.

A number of conditions are necessary for the self-organization of the system. Among them, the following are primarily noted: 1) the relative openness of the system, which implies the presence of certain flows into it (human resources, energy, capital, goods, etc.); 2) the presence of an element of randomness (for example, randomness of natural origin, randomness in scientific and technical inventions and the consequences of their application, etc.); 3) non-linearity of the law of interaction of various parts of the social system; 4) the certainty of the range of system parameters that play an important role in the qualitative behavior of the social system, the so-called control parameters. Moreover, if the control parameters have critical points beyond which the behavior of the system changes radically and new types of solutions arise, then such control parameters are called bifurcational. The controlling (bifurcation) parameters of the macroeconomic level can be the coefficients of efficiency of production interaction, some integrated characteristics (for example, the gross national product), etc.

The technical system is a proportional combination of separate technical means from many separate types of various equipment (production capacities of an enterprise, industry, with the help of which people in the process of material production are able to produce products of a given quality in a certain quantity).

The technological system is based on the division of activities, material and spiritual production into stages and processes. For example, lawmaking has such stages as a legislative initiative, discussion of a law, adoption of a law, signing and publication of a law.

The organizational system includes management structures, provisions and instructions, with the help of which they influence the managed subsystem.

The economic system is a unity of economic and financial processes and connections.

Social system - people and their associations created for joint life activity (individual, family, state).

Technical, technological, organizational, economic and social systems are interconnected and create an integral organism.

All organizations are systems. In order to understand how a system performs its function, it is necessary to know how all its elements are interconnected with each other and how it is connected with the system that forms its external environment.

This raises two important questions. How to set system boundaries? What should be considered subsystems corresponding to it? The answers to these questions depend on the purpose of the analysis.

When setting the boundaries of the system, you always have to rely on common sense. The wider the scope of the problem, the wider the system under study and the more variables that need to be taken into account. Thus, the problem of discrimination in employment can be seen as one aspect of a larger problem requiring action in the areas of legislation, education, housing, political rights, and so on. However, this raises the problem of the adequacy of resources for the need to study this larger system. If the resources are not sufficient, then the main goal is divided into sub-goals, which facilitates the approach to solving the main problem. This is achieved due to the fact that the resources released after solving subtasks are directed to solving the main problem.

Systems are divided into natural and artificial. The first are natural, and the second are social, that is, man-made.

Everything that is not included in the system and affects it, or that the system itself affects, is called its external environment.

In addition, systems are either closed or open. A closed system has rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are relatively independent of the environment surrounding the system. It can exist at least for some period of time on its own, without interaction with the environment. For example, hours. Closed physical systems are subject to entropy - the tendency to dry out. In management, closed systems can conditionally include organizations whose management protects their system from information exchange with the external environment (from innovations, education, etc.). Such systems are also subject to exhaustion. There is every reason to believe that one of the main reasons for the collapse of the Soviet model of government was its closeness from the outside world. Another example of closeness from the outside world today is the DPRK.

An open system (the majority of them) is characterized by interaction with the external environment. Such a system is not self-sustaining, therefore it depends on energy, information, materials, capital, labor resources coming from outside. In the transformation process, the system processes these inputs, converting them into products or services. These products and services are the system's outputs to the environment. If the management organization is efficient, then the transformation process creates added value of inputs and results in many possible additional outputs such as profits, increased sales, employee satisfaction, organizational growth, and so on.

Moreover, an open system has the ability to adapt to changes in the external environment and must do so in order to continue its functioning.

In order for any system to achieve dynamic equilibrium (dynamic homeostasis), it must have feedback - an information input that tells whether the system really has a stable state and whether it is subject to destruction. This is the main purpose of systems management. Having received information about its state, the system can also influence the dynamics of material and energy inputs. Therefore, the system must have a block for monitoring inputs, functioning, and outputs, capable of correcting the system's activity based on feedback signals.

Feedback is understood as obtaining information about the results of the influence of the control system on the controlled system by comparing the actual state with the specified (planned) one. The essence of feedback is to establish the dependence of personal, collective and public interests on the results of management decisions.

Open systems, and social systems in particular, tend to increase in complexity and differentiation. This in turn leads to a coordination problem. Hence, there is a need to optimize the growth of the system, minimize the levels of the hierarchy and links to each of them, and minimize the reasonable boundaries of the control range.

Systems theory considers a controlled system not autonomously, but in its relationship with the environment and explores methods for adapting the system to changing external conditions.

According to the degree of complexity, the systems are divided into large and complex. Complex systems include those that are built to solve multi-purpose problems.

Managers are mainly engaged in open systems, because all organizations are open systems.

With the help of mathematical modeling, cybernetics and information theory, attempts are currently being made to create a comprehensive theory of management systems, although progress along this path has so far been modest.

The system (in its most general form) can be characterized as something whole, consisting of interrelated and interdependent parts, the interaction of which generates new integrative qualities that are not inherent in individual components.

Any system has two main content characteristics.

First, integrity: the system is a set of concrete, with their inherent properties and the nature of the relationship of parts.

Secondly, divisibility: the system consists of subsystems that also have system properties, that is, they can be represented as systems of a lower level.

A management (management) system is a system in which management (management) functions are implemented.

The control system can be represented as an interaction of three elements. The first element is the subject of control. As the second element of control (management) or the control part of the system that has a managerial impact, the third element of the system is the control object.

Control subsystem is a set of management bodies of the enterprise, controlled - a set of shops, sections, teams and jobs. The control and managed subsystems are interconnected by command flows and reverse information flows, reflecting the reaction of the managed subsystem to incoming commands.

The control subsystem includes a number of elements, the simultaneous operation of which allows you to effectively manage the enterprise.

These include:

Organization management (management functions and management structures);

Management methods (economic, administrative-legal, organizational, socio-psychological);

Control technology;

Control technique.

The object of management is an employee, a group of persons, a labor collective. The objects of management can also be: resources, processes, results, all types of human activity.

Organizations in the course of their activities use material, labor, financial, information, technological and other resources. Accordingly, as objects of control - resources can be:
- commodity stocks;

Financial resources;

Information array;

Organization staff.

In any organization, there are many processes, from the management process to the production process. The most important parts of the production process are the supply, production and marketing of products. In accordance with this, the following can act as objects of control - processes:

Manufacturing process;

Trade and technological process;

Marketing activity of the enterprise;

Logistics of the enterprise, etc.

The results (outputs of the system) include: profit, profitability, production and sales volumes, costs, product quality, etc. Accordingly, the following can serve as management objects - results:
- the quality of goods produced or services rendered;

Results of management or production activities;

labor productivity;

Production or management costs, etc.

An enterprise as an open system can be represented as follows:

The management system of a modern organization (enterprise) must meet the following basic requirements:

Have high flexibility;

Be adequate to a complex production technology that requires appropriate forms of control, organization and division of labor;

Promptly respond to changes in the factors of the external and internal environment of the enterprise, market conditions;

Take into account competition in the relevant market of goods (services);

Take into account the requirements for the quality of customer service and the fulfillment of contracts;

Ensure high efficiency of enterprise management;

Contribute to the development of the organization;

Ensure the implementation of scientific achievements and best practices;

Have the ability to self-regulate so that any deviations from the norm (in terms of cost, quality, timing, etc.) are quickly fixed (ideally, automatically) and countermeasures are immediately developed and taken to return the control system to its previous normal state.

Communication is an indispensable element of any control system. Communication can be defined as an important for the purposes of management, interaction, the channel of exchange between the subjects of matter, energy, information. The single act of communication is the impact.

Links can be direct, reverse, vertical, horizontal, etc.

Direct connection is the impact of the subject of management on the object in the form of management commands, decisions, recommendations, etc.

Feedback is information coming from the control object to the control subject. The existence of feedback means that the result of the functioning of the control object in a certain way affects the impacts that come to it. As a rule, feedback acts as an important regulator in the control system.

The given direct and feedback links are classified as vertical. In addition to them, there are also horizontal connections that make it possible to implement informal relations that contribute to the transfer of knowledge and skills, ensuring the coordination of actions of subjects of the same level to achieve the goals set by the management system.

Thus, management is a management system that ensures the effective functioning and development of an organization in a competitive environment.

5. Organization: concept, features, classification

Company - it is an independent economic entity created by an entrepreneur or an association of entrepreneurs to produce products, perform work and provide services in order to meet public needs and make a profit.

Enterprises specializing in the production of homogeneous products form the corresponding branches of material production: industry, agriculture, transport, construction, etc. They make up the structure of the industry, determine their profile and scope. In addition, enterprises and organizations form the territorial specialization of cities and regions in which they are located. Thus, enterprises and their teams are the main elements from which branch and territorial complexes are formed at the same time. Therefore, enterprises act as the main links of the national economic complex.

Currently, in domestic practice, the concept of "firm" is becoming more widespread. The latter is often used as a synonym for the enterprise, which contradicts its semantic purpose. So, if an enterprise plays the role of a direct commodity producer, then the firm is called upon to play the role of an entrepreneur creating or transforming an enterprise that provides financing for their activities. The very name of the company, its trademark, used when concluding business contracts for goods, their packaging, allows you to individualize a particular enterprise and the activity of the company, unlike other manufacturers of homogeneous products.

The economic role of the enterprise is to meet the needs of consumers and provide income to its employees, owner and suppliers.

Operating in a certain territory (city, district, region, republic), enterprises ensure its well-being, on which they themselves depend. The enterprise must organize its activities, focus on the person, that is, it also plays social role.

Consider the economic and social functions of the enterprise in three aspects:

The role of the company in relation to its customers,

The role of the company in relation to its employees,

The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property of the enterprise.

Most of the company's products are intended for sale on the market to meet the needs of their clients. For this, it makes a profit, so the company needs a stable clientele. For its part, the consumer needs goods of a certain quality at affordable prices. Strong relationships are created between them, which can only exist and intensify if both parties are satisfied with their ties. Only by serving customers, an enterprise can actually satisfy its needs and thereby realize profits. Thus, the role of the enterprise in relation to its customers is to serve them.

Enterprises, ultimately, ensure the harmonious development of the economy, focused on meeting the needs that are recognized as the most useful for the individual and society.

In relation to to their employees the company must provide them:

1) the necessary technical means to enable personnel to achieve the highest productivity,

2) the best working conditions, an environment in which employees work with pleasure,

3) appropriate wages,

4) employment protection.

The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property comes down to making a profit necessary to:

1) to ensure the stability necessary for the enterprise itself and its staff,

2) not cause damage to its employees, as well as creditors, society in the event of a violation of the normal functioning of the enterprise,

3) ensure self-financing of the enterprise.

Enterprise goal:

1) satisfaction of social needs,

2) making a profit.

The following can be distinguished signs of the enterprise.

1. An enterprise is, first of all, organization- those. harmonious combination of material elements of production and labor force.

For the functioning of such an organization, a complex is required, including a land plot, buildings, structures, and equipment. In addition to the means of labor for production and economic activities, labor is also needed.

2. Any enterprise manufactures products or provides services. This product is used as:

consumable item,

Means of production in new production cycles.

The enterprise is obliged to produce high-quality products at optimal costs in order to better meet social needs and increase the well-being of the enterprise team.

3. The enterprise is legal entity, owning, managing or managing separate property and liable for its obligations with this property.

4. The enterprise carries out any types of activities that are provided for by its charter and not prohibited by the current legislation.

5. Enterprise:

Independently organizes production in accordance with its goals,

Independently chooses business partners,

Independently disposes of finished products,

Independently sells finished products through the most profitable channels and at affordable prices,

Independently manages their income.

6. Each enterprise, as an independent economic entity with the rights of a legal entity, finds all the means for its activities on market(money, goods, labor, information). In the market, the company sells its products. An enterprise can function stably only under the condition of normal uninterrupted interaction with the market environment. Market functions: informational, pricing.

7. The indispensable features of a modern enterprise should be dynamism, aspiration to the future. It must develop, produce and market new products, introduce new methods of production and its organization, distribution, find new markets for its products, develop new sources of raw materials and energy. The successful operation of an enterprise in the era of scientific and technological progress largely depends on the accuracy of forecasts - both short-term and long-term. The activities of the enterprise, its concerns should be turned to the future. The enterprise must know the future needs for its products and prepare in a timely manner to meet them. This increases the importance of conducting research, scientific market research, the use of forecasting methods, the implementation of training programs, retraining and advanced training of personnel.

Classification of enterprises. Organizational and legal forms of enterprises

Enterprises can be classified according to:

Sector of the economy;

Object of activity;

Organizational and legal form;

The goals of the activity;

Dimensions;

Type of production processes;

Degrees of specialization.

By sector of the economy distinguish enterprises in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.

Primary sector enterprises- directly exploit natural resources (for example, oil production) and provide raw materials for the manufacturing industry (for example, fish production).

Secondary sector enterprises- enterprises that convert raw materials into means of production and consumer goods (for example, NP and NCP).

Tertiary sector enterprises (service sector)– provide various services (e.g. transport, education, banks, medical facilities).

By object of activity distinguish enterprises: agriculture, transport, construction, trade, enterprises providing services, industrial.

According to the goals of the activity distinguish:

Enterprises pursuing, in addition to satisfying the needs of members of society, making a profit - commercial;

Enterprises that satisfy the personal or collective needs of members of society and do not set goals in making a profit - non-commercial.

By size distinguish: small, medium, large and extra large enterprises.

By type of production processes distinguish between enterprises mass, serial and single production.

By degree of specialization distinguish: specialized, diversified and combined.

In accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the following enterprises are created and carry out their production and economic activities, depending on the form of ownership: organizational and legal forms enterprises:

State;

Municipal;

customized;

Business partnerships;

Business companies;

consumer cooperatives;

institutions;

Public and religious organizations (associations);

Joint-stock companies (CJSC, OJSC);

Enterprises created on the basis of rent, etc.

According to Russian law company - an independent economic entity (legal entity), created to conduct economic activities, which is carried out in order to make a profit and meet public needs.

The enterprise acts as a legal entity, which is determined by a combination of features:

1. Isolation of their property;

2. Responsible for obligations with this property;

3. Availability of a bank account;

4. Acts on his own behalf.

The isolation of property is expressed by the presence of an independent balance sheet, which lists the property of the enterprise.

Analysis of the working definition of the system allows us to highlight some of its general properties:

any system is a complex of interconnected elements;

The system forms a special unity with the external environment;

any system is an element of a system of a higher order;

The elements that make up the system, in turn, act as systems of a lower order.

These properties can be analyzed using Fig. 2.7 (A - system; B and D - elements of system A; C - element of system B).

Element B, which serves as an element of system A, in turn, is a lower-level system that consists of its own elements, including, for example, element C. And if we consider element B as a system interacting with the external environment, then the latter in this case will represent system B (an element of system A). Therefore, the feature of the unity of the system with the external environment can be interpreted as the interaction of elements of the system of a higher order. Similar reasoning can be carried out for any element of any system.

The study of the properties of the system involves, first of all, the study of the relationship of parts and the whole. This means that:

1) the whole is primary, and the parts are secondary;

2) system-forming factors are the conditions for the interconnection of parts within one system;

3) parts of the system form an inseparable whole, so the impact on any of them affects the entire system;

4) each part of the system has its own purpose in terms of the goal towards which the activity of the whole is directed;

5) the nature of the parts and their functions are determined by the position of the parts as a whole, and their behavior is regulated by the relationship of the whole and its parts;

6) the whole behaves like a single entity, regardless of the degree of complexity.

From the whole variety of properties of systems for the study of organizational processes, it is advisable first of all to single out such properties as emergence, equifinality and homeostasis.

emergence is one of the most essential properties of systems. This is the irreducibility of the properties of the system to the properties of its elements; in other words, emergence is the presence of new qualities of the whole that are absent from its constituent parts. Thus, the properties of the whole are not a simple sum of the properties of its constituent elements, although they depend on them. At the same time, the elements integrated into the system may lose the properties inherent in them outside the system, or acquire new ones.

equifinality- one of the least studied properties of the system, characterizing the limiting capabilities of systems of a certain class of complexity. L. von Bertalanffy, who proposed this term, defined equifinality in relation to an open system as the ability of a system (in contrast to the equilibrium states in closed systems, completely determined by the initial conditions) to achieve a state independent of time and initial conditions, which is determined solely by the parameters of the system. The need to introduce this concept arises starting from a certain level of system complexity. equifinality- the internal predisposition of the system to achieve a certain limiting state, independent of external conditions. Idea equifinality consists in studying the parameters that determine a certain limiting level of organization.