In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's foreign policy was focused on solving problems in two main directions: southern and western (Scheme 123).

First of all, this concerned the southern direction, where a sharp struggle took place with the Ottoman Empire for the Northern Black Sea region and it was necessary to ensure the security of the southern borders of Russia.

The implementation of the policy in the western direction was to strengthen the position of Russia in Europe and was associated with participation in the partitions of Poland, as well as with the opposition of France, in which in 1789-1794. a bourgeois revolution took place and whose revolutionary influence was feared by the European monarchical states, and above all by the Russian Empire.

Scheme 123

The solution of foreign policy tasks related to the southern direction was complicated as a result of clashes with the Ottoman Empire, which led to two Russian-Turkish wars (Scheme 124).

Scheme 124

Russo-Turkish War 1768–1774 The reason for the war was the intervention of Russia in the affairs of Poland, which caused discontent in Turkey. Catherine II supported the Polish king Stanislaw Poniatowski in the fight against the opposition (members of the so-called Bar Confederation). Pursuing one of the detachments of the Confederates, the Russian Cossacks invaded Turkish territory and occupied a settlement there, located at the right tributary of the Southern Bug. In response, on September 25, 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia.

The fighting began in the winter of 1769, when the Crimean Khan, an ally of Turkey, invaded Ukraine, but his attack was repelled by Russian troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev.

Military operations were conducted on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia and at sea. The decisive year in the war was 1770, in which brilliant victories were won by the Russian army.

The fleet under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridov and Count A.G. Orlov rounded Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor on June 24–26, 1770 completely destroyed the Turkish squadron.

On land, a number of victories were won by the Russian army led by P.A. Rumyantsev. He used a new infantry combat formation - a mobile square. The troops "bristled" on all four sides with bayonets, which made it possible to successfully resist the numerous Turkish cavalry. In the summer of 1770, he won victories on the tributaries of the Prut - the Larga and Kagul rivers, which made it possible for Russia to reach the Danube.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov took the Crimea. In 1772–1773 an armistice was concluded between the warring parties and peace negotiations began. However, they ended up with nothing. The war has resumed. The Russians crossed the Danube, in this campaign brilliant victories in the summer of 1774 were won by the corps of A.V. Suvorov. Turkey started talking about making peace. On July 10, 1774, a peace treaty was signed at the headquarters of the Russian command, in the town of Kyuchuk-Kainarzhi.

Russian-Turkish war 1787–1791 The confrontation between Russia and the Ottoman Empire continued. The Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of the Crimea, the recognition of Georgia as his vassal and the inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On August 13, 1787, having received a refusal, he declared war on Russia, which acted in alliance with Austria.

Military operations began with the repulse of an attack by Turkish troops on the fortress of Kinburn (not far from Ochakov). The general leadership of the Russian army was carried out by the head of the Military Collegium, Prince G.A. Potemkin. In December 1788, after a long siege, Russian troops took the Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In 1789 A.V. Suvorov, with lesser forces, twice achieved victory in the battles of Focsani and on the river. Rym - nike. For this victory, he received the title of count and became known as Count Suvorov-Rymniksky. In December 1790, the troops under his command managed to achieve the capture of the fortress of Izmail, the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube, which was the main victory in the war.

In 1791, the Turks lost the fortress of Anapa in the Caucasus, and then lost the naval battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in the Black Sea to the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral F.F. Ushakov. All this forced Turkey to conclude a peace treaty, which was signed in Iasi in December 1791.

Strengthening the position of Russia in Europe in the second half of the XVIII century. was associated with the weakening of the Polish state and its division among the leading European powers (Scheme 125).

Scheme 125

Prussia initiated this process. Its king, Frederick II, offered Catherine II to divide the Commonwealth between its neighbors, especially since Austria had already begun the division, since its troops were located directly on the territory of this state. As a result, the St. Petersburg Convention of July 25, 1772 was concluded, which sanctioned the first partition of Poland. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Russia took possession of Central Belarus with the cities of Minsk, Slutsk, Pinsk and Right-Bank Ukraine, including Zhytomyr and Kamenets-Podolsky. This caused an uprising of Polish patriots in 1794 led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. It was brutally suppressed by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. The defeat of the rebels predetermined the third and final division of the Commonwealth. The lands of Courland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus were ceded to Russia. As a result, Russia captured more than half of all Polish lands. Poland lost its statehood for more than a hundred years.

The most important result of the divisions of Poland for Russia was not only the acquisition of vast territories, but also the transfer of the state border far to the west to the center of the continent, which significantly increased its influence in Europe. The reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples with Russia freed them from the religious oppression of Catholicism and created opportunities for the further development of peoples within the framework of the Eastern Slavic socio-cultural community.

And finally, at the end of the XVIII century. the main task of Russia's foreign policy was the struggle against revolutionary France (see Diagram 125). After the execution of King Louis XVI, Catherine II broke off diplomatic and trade relations with France, actively helped the counter-revolutionaries, and, together with England, tried to put economic pressure on France. Only the Polish national liberation uprising in 1794 prevented Russia from openly organizing an intervention.

Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. was active and expansionist in nature, which made it possible to include new lands in the state and strengthen its position in Europe.

Catherine the Great born May 2, 1729 in the Prussian city of Stettin, in 1745 she married Peter III, and on July 9, 1762, she herself became the ruling empress as a result of a palace coup, while Peter abdicated and was taken into custody. A week later he died (most likely he was strangled by his jailers, who played cards with him).

In fact, it turned out that Catherine II made a double seizure of power - she took it from her husband, but did not give it to her son Paul (according to the rules, she was supposed to become regent under the infant emperor). However, from the height of history, it can be argued that she was worthy of the title of empress.

Catherine became the first empress of non-Russian origin (since she was German), but nevertheless the Romanov dynasty did not stop on Peter III, since after Catherine came to the throne Pavel Romanov, her son. It should be noted here that the direct male line of the Romanovs was interrupted for another Peter II Alekseevich, and later the Romanovs went down the female line, and officially the dynasty became known as the Romanovs-Holstein-Gottorp.

Domestic policy of Catherine II.

In domestic politics, Catherine largely continued the line of Peter I. Just like Peter, the empress paid a lot of attention to foreign policy and Russia's image in the world, because of which she also had failures in the internal reforms of the state.

Catherine was well versed in people and knew how to select close people (assistants and consultants), found talents and supported them in every possible way (and in all areas - in the military, in art, in architecture and culture). The only problem was that the vast majority of these advisors and talented artists were invited foreigners, most often Germans and French. This was explained by the desire to bring the Enlightenment of Europe to Russia. As a result, much less attention was paid to the education of one's own minds and talents in the Russian Empire than one would like.

With regard to religious issues, Empress Catherine II carried out a number of successful transformations. The Russian Orthodox Church was actively supported by the ruler, the Old Believers were returned to Russia, and their persecution ceased (except for a couple of incidents). In the Far East, Buddhists received many privileges, and the Jewish community that appeared after the annexation of part of the lands of the Commonwealth (and a considerable one - about 1 million people) could preach Judaism and lead their national way of life beyond the line of permanent Jewish settlement, which provided the Jews with the territory of modern Ukraine , Belarus and Lithuania. In the event that a Jew wanted to live in Moscow, he had to accept Orthodoxy. I must say that for all the anti-Semitism of this decree, the reform was still quite liberal in that era.

Speaking of national policy, it is also necessary to mention the manifesto, according to which Catherine invited foreigners to Russia for permanent residence, granting them benefits and privileges. As a result, in the Volga region, for example, German settlements arose (Volga Germans). Five years after the publication of the manifesto (1767), their number already exceeded 23 thousand people.

In 1763, Catherine II reformed the Senate. In 1764, the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks (Hetmanate) was liquidated, the first prerequisite was the liquidation of customs between Russia and the Hetmanate ten years earlier (essentially, the abolition of autonomy).

The main goal of the abolition of the Cossacks is the centralization of power and the unification of the country, the secondary one is the removal from Moscow (to the Kuban) of such an unstable class as the Cossacks.

Catherine's liberal policy sometimes let her down. In 1766 Catherine published order- her vision of government, and convened Statutory commission to reform Codes which was adopted in 1649. Representatives of the nobility, townspeople and free peasants were convened, as well as one deputy from Synod.

Obviously, there was not enough "Instruction" for the direction of activity, and a firm hand was needed, since the interclass differences of the deputies prevented them from promptly conducting legislative activities. The first few meetings they only chose the title for the empress (the choice was "Great"). After working for about a year and a half, the Legislative Commission was dissolved, although the undertaking was good.

The same liberalism in relation to the nobility (for all the time not a single person was executed and even seriously repressed) gave rise to its representatives to become impudent and bribery to flourish. By the way, immediately after coming to power, Catherine issued a manifesto on the prevention of "extortion", but there were no concrete actions, and many took bribes.

After suppression uprisings of Yemelyan Pugachev Catherine II carried out an administrative reform. Instead of 23 provinces, the country was divided into 53 governorships. The reform was not bad in that there were more local governments for the same number of square kilometers, which made it possible to closely monitor the local population in order to more effectively prevent possible conflicts. The disadvantage of the reform was the increased bureaucracy, which required three (if not five) times more budget funds than before. Naturally, this affected the economy.

On April 21, 1785, the Charter on the rights and liberties of the noble nobility was adopted. This document secured the rights of the nobles, most of which had already been published earlier. The letter strengthened the support of Catherine from the nobility, but did not have a particularly good effect on the peasants. It was planned to issue a charter to the peasants, but was not implemented due to the wars with the Turks and the Swedes.

The export of grain, forbidden by Elizabeth, was opened, and duties on export goods were reduced. International trade immediately revived, although sometimes the export of grain exceeded the norm and there was a shortage within the country. Of course, this is not about the Holodomors (as some researchers of Polish and Ukrainian origin, as well as other non-authoritative sources), but still it would be worth creating a body that controls the export of grain and other goods.

New credit institutions were established - a loan office and a state bank, and such a function as deposits appeared. In addition, Insurance Expedition was established - the first insurance company in Russia.

The role of the Russian Empire in the world economy has grown significantly. Russian ships began to ply the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, delivering goods from and to England, France, Spain, etc.

Here the only negative point is that Russia sold mainly raw materials (metals, flour, wood) or semi-finished products (meat, for example). At that time, the industrial revolution was in full swing in Europe, factories and factories with machine tools were being created, but Catherine was in no hurry to bring "colossus" (as she put it) to Russia, fearing that they would deprive people of jobs and cause unemployment. This purely feminine short-sightedness set back the development of Russian industry and economic growth for several decades.

With all this, the empress carried out a number of extremely successful reforms in education, as well as in science and health (Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, a network of city schools, Academy of Sciences, and the best in Europe, various schools, a library, an observatory, botanical gardens, etc.).

Catherine the Great introduced compulsory vaccination against smallpox, and, by the way, she was the first to be vaccinated. In addition, other infectious diseases were fought, medical schools and specialized hospitals (psychiatric, venereological, etc.) were created.

Homes for homeless minor children and even social assistance for widows were established.

Thus, in the domestic policy of Catherine II there were both positive and negative aspects, and the latter were useful in that they gave invaluable experience for future generations.

It falls on the period from 1762 to 1796.

At this time, the Seven Years' War was coming to an end in Europe, and Russia was going through a period of rapprochement with Prussia and preparations for a war with Denmark, which Peter III was about to launch. Having come to power, Catherine II managed to remain neutral in the Seven Years' War, stop preparations for war with Denmark, and weaken and eradicate Prussian influence at her court.

Turkish question

The territories of the Black Sea, the North Caucasus and the Crimea were under the rule of Turkey. In 1768, under a far-fetched pretext (referring to the fact that one of the detachments of the Russian army entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire, pursuing the Poles participating in the uprising of the Bar Confederation), the Sultan of Turkey announced the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted 6 years.

However, Russia won the war, and the territory of the Crimean Khanate formally became independent, but in fact became dependent on Russia. In addition, under the terms of the peace treaty, the northern coast of the Black Sea went to Russia.

In an attempt to return these territories, Turkey unleashed another war (1787 - 1792), which it also lost, and was forced to cede Ochakov and Crimea to Russia. The result of these two wars was a significant expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire: now the border with the Ottoman Empire was moved to the very Dniester. In addition, as a result of skillful manipulations by the empress, who managed to put a pro-Russian ruler on the throne of the Crimean Khanate, the Crimean Khanate also became part of Russia.

Polish question

The formal reason for intervening in the internal affairs of the Commonwealth, which included the Kingdom of Poland, was the demand to equalize the rights of Orthodox and Protestants with Catholics. As a result of pressure from Catherine II, August Poniatowski occupied the Polish throne, which resulted in the discontent of the Polish gentry and the uprising of the Bar Confederation, which was suppressed by Russian troops. Prussia and Austria, realizing that Russian influence in Poland had increased significantly, offered the Russian Empire to divide the Commonwealth.

The first partition took place in 1772, as a result, Russia received part of the Latvian lands and the eastern part of Belarus. The next division occurred after the citizens of the Commonwealth appealed to Russia for help, who opposed the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. As a result of the division approved at the Grodno Seimas in 1793, Russia received the Right-Bank Ukraine and Central Belarus, including Minsk. And, finally, after the uprising of T. Kosciuszko, in 1795, the last, third partition took place, as a result of which the Commonwealth ceased to exist, and Russia expanded its territory by joining Western Belarus, Courland, Lithuania and Volhynia.

Georgian question

King Erekle II of Kartli-Kakheti turned to Russia to protect his state from the encroachments of the Persians and Turks, and the empress agreed, sending a small detachment to Georgia. After that, in 1783, the Russian Empire and the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed an agreement (“Treaty of St. George”), according to which the kingdom became a protectorate of Russia in exchange for military protection.

Swedish question

Sweden, with the support of England, Holland and Prussia, invaded the territory of the Russian Empire, taking advantage of the fact that Russia was at war with Turkey. However, Russia managed to win here too, and as a result, sign the Treaty of Verel with Sweden (1790), according to the terms of which, the borders between the states remained unchanged.

Other countries

The foreign policy of the empress was aimed not only at expanding the territory of the empire, but also at strengthening Russia's position in the international arena. First of all, it normalized relations with Prussia (a union treaty was signed in 1764), which later made it possible to create the so-called Northern System - an alliance of several European states, including Russia and Prussia, against Austria and France.

In October 1782, Russia signed an agreement on cooperation with Denmark. During the Austro-Prussian war (1778 - 1779) Catherine II acted as an intermediary between the parties, essentially dictating her terms of reconciliation, and thereby restoring balance in Europe.

failures

Like almost any politician, Catherine II also had plans that did not materialize. First of all, this is the Greek project - plans to divide the Turkish lands together with Austria, as well as the Persian campaign with the aim of conquering large territories of Persia, and then Constantinople. The latter was not completed due to the death of the empress, although certain steps were taken.

Results and evaluation

The territory of the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II expanded significantly due to the annexed and conquered territories, the colonization of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands began. The position of the empire in Europe was also strengthened through the conclusion of numerous cooperation agreements. However, historians are ambivalent about the foreign policy of the empress. Some argue that the destruction of the sovereignty of the Commonwealth was unacceptable.

Critical attitude to the methods of Catherine II and her successors, Paul I and, later, Nicholas I. Nevertheless, the tasks that Catherine II faced as the ruler of one of the most powerful powers, she successfully solved, even if the means she chose were always adequate and far-sighted.

The reign of Catherine II the Great is one of the most complex topics in history. This is probably because it occupies most of the second half of the 18th century. This post will briefly describe the domestic policy of Catherine 2. This topic simply needs to be studied in order to be well versed in history when completing exam tasks.

The most important thing

Few people understand why historical events are poorly remembered. In fact, everything is perfectly remembered, if you keep in mind the most important thing. The most important thing is the concept of this or that government or the driving contradiction. Having marked these things, it is easy to remember them, as well as the entire outline of events.

The concept of the reign of Catherine the Great was Enlightened absolutism - a European concept popular in the 18th century, which, in a nutshell, consisted in recognizing the leading role in the history and development of states for an enlightened monarch. Such a monarch, a sage on the throne, a philosopher will be able to lead society to progress and enlightenment. The main ideas of the Enlightenment can be found in the work of Charles Louis Monetskyo "On the Spirit of the Laws" and in the writings of other enlighteners.

These ideas are generally simple: they included observance of laws by the people, the idea that people are naturally good, and the state should awaken this goodness in people through enlightenment.

Sophia Augusta Frederica Anhalt of Zerbskaya (real name of the Empress) learned these principles as a young educated girl. And when she became empress, she tried to implement them in Russia.

However, the main contradiction of her reign was that this was not possible. The first blow was dealt to her mood by the Legislative Commission, in which the entire color of society gathered. And not a single estate wanted to put an end to serfdom. On the contrary, everyone was looking for benefits for themselves in the slave position of 90 percent of the population of the state.

Nevertheless, something was realized, at least in the first half of the reign of the Empress - before the uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev. His uprising became, as it were, a watershed between the empress of liberal views and the conservative ruler.

reforms

Within the framework of one post, it is impossible to consider in detail the entire domestic policy of Catherine, but it can be done briefly. I’ll tell you where to find out everything in detail at the end of the post.

Secularization of church lands in 1764

This reform was actually started by Peter the Third. But it was already Catherine the Great who realized it. All church and monastery lands were now transferred to the state, and the peasants were transferred to the category of economic peasants. The state could give these lands to whoever it wanted.

The secularization of the lands meant the end of the centuries-old rivalry between ecclesiastical and secular authorities, which peaked during the reigns of Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great.

Convocation of the Legislative Commission

• Reason: the need to adopt a new code of laws, a new Code, because the Cathedral Code of 1649 has long been outdated.
• Dates of the meeting: from June 1767 to December 1768
• Results: the new code of laws was never adopted. The task of codifying Russian legislation will only be realized under Nicholas the First. The reason for the dissolution is the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war.

The uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev

A serious event in the field of domestic politics, since it showed all the inconsistency of serfdom, on the one hand, and the crisis in relations between the authorities and the Cossacks, on the other.

Results: the suppression of the uprising. The consequences of this uprising was the provincial reform of Catherine the Great.

Provincial reform

In November 1775, the Empress publishes the "Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire". The main goal: to change the state-territorial structure in favor of better tax collection, as well as to strengthen the power of governors so that they can more effectively resist peasant uprisings.

As a result, the provinces began to be divided only into counties (they used to be divided into provinces), and they themselves were disaggregated: there were more of them.

The entire structure of state authorities has also changed. You can see the most important of these changes in this table:

As you can see, the empress, despite the fact that the entire reform was pro-noble, tried to implement the principle of separation of powers, albeit in a truncated version. This system of authorities will continue until the bourgeois reforms of Alexander the Second Liberator

A charter to the nobility and cities of 1785

Parsing letters of commendation is a serious educational task. It cannot be solved within the scope of this post. But I enclose links to the full texts of these important documents:

• Complaint to the nobility
• Complaint letter to cities

Results

The main question for the results: why do we put this empress on a par with Ivan the Third, Peter the Great and call it great? Because this empress completed most of the domestic and foreign policy processes.

In the field of domestic policy, the process of formation of the authorities of the absolute monarchy was completed, the system of state administration was put in order; the nobility reached the peak of its rights and its power, the “third estate” was more or less formed - the townspeople, who were given excellent rights under the Charter to the cities. The only trouble is that this layer was very small and could not become the backbone of the state.

In the field of foreign policy: Russia annexed the Crimea (1783), Eastern Georgia (1783), all the old Russian lands during the three partitions of Poland, and reached its natural boundaries. The issue of access to the Black Sea was resolved. Actually a lot has been done.

But the main thing has not been done: a new code of laws has not been adopted, and serfdom has not been abolished. Could this have been achieved? I think no.

Tasks of foreign policy. The most important task of foreign policy facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third quarter of the XVIII century. The Polish question occupied a significant place in Russia's foreign policy activity. The Great French Revolution, which began in 1789, largely determined the direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including the struggle against revolutionary France. On the southeastern borders of Russia, the situation was relatively stable.

Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774. The Russian government was prompted to take active steps in the south by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and the developing industry and trade, which dictated the need for access to the Black Sea coast.

Turkey, instigated by France and England, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations began in 1769 and were conducted on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A. G. Orlov and admirals G. A. Spiridov and I. S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgorukov captured the Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. The troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way for the main forces led by P. A. Rumyantsev to Istanbul. Turkey was forced to ask for peace.

It was concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774. Under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea, the Black Sea steppes - Novorossia, the right to have its own fleet on the Black Sea and the right to pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Turkey paid an indemnity of 4 million rubles. The Russian government also won the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

Annexation of Crimea. Turkey did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return the Crimea under its rule, Russian troops in 1783 occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a support base for the fleet. G. A. Potemkin for success in annexing the Crimea (the old name of Taurida) received a prefix to his title "Prince of Tauride."

In the spring of 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court, the Polish king and European ambassadors, made a trip to Novorossia and the Crimea. In Kherson they were joined by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The trip was aimed at getting acquainted with the wealth of Novorossia and the successes of G. A. Potemkin, who was at the head of the department of the south of Russia, in its development. In addition, the guests had to make sure that Russia had a firm foot on the Black Sea. These results were achieved, although the expression "Potemkin villages", meaning excessive show-off, came into use after Catherine's trip.

Georgievsky treatise. In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (Northern Caucasus), an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king Erekle II and Russia on a protectorate. The Treaty of Georgievsky was signed, according to which Russia took Eastern Georgia under its protection.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791. In the summer of 1787, Turkey demanded the return of the Crimea and opened hostilities. A. V. Suvorov defeated the enemy in the battle of Kinburn (near Ochakov, 1787), Fokshany and on the Rymnik River (1789).

In 1791 peace was signed in the city of Iasi. According to the Yassy peace treaty, Turkey recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia. The Dniester River became the border between the two countries. The territory between the rivers Bug and Dniester became part of Russia. Turkey recognized the Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of St. George in 1783.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the countries of the Mediterranean were expanding. The Crimean Khanate, a constant hotbed of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands, was liquidated. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.

Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790 At the end of the 80s of the XVIII century. Russia had to simultaneously conduct military operations on two fronts. In 1788, Sweden decided to return the lands lost in the Great Northern War. Military operations took place near St. Petersburg, when the main Russian armies fought in the south against Turkey. The offensive of the Swedes on land did not produce results, and soon the Swedish king and his troops left Russia. Moreover, Russian troops occupied a significant part of Swedish Finland. Battles at sea went on with varying success. In 1790, the Treaty of Verel was signed in a Finnish village on the Kymmene River, which retained the former borders.

Education USA and Russia. One of the significant international events of the third Thursday of the XVIII century. there was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - a bourgeois revolution that led to the creation of the United States of America.

Disagreements between England and Russia had a favorable effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries. The ships of neutral countries had the right of armed protection if they were attacked by the belligerent fleet. This led to the abandonment of England's attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.

Partitions of Poland. In the last third of the XVIII century. The Polish question has become one of the central issues in the field of international relations in Europe. The Commonwealth was going through a severe crisis, the cause of which lay in the self-serving, anti-national policy of the Polish magnates, who brought the country to collapse.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops to Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - to Pomorye. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The progressive part of the Polish nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie made an attempt to save the Polish state. In accordance with the Constitution of 1791, the election of the king and the right of "liberum veto" were abolished. The army was strengthened, the third estate was admitted to the Sejm, freedom of religion was introduced.

The new Polish Constitution was adopted when France was in the flames of revolution. Fearing the spread of the "revolutionary infection", and also feeling the decline of their influence in the country, the Polish magnates turned to Catherine II for help. Russian troops, followed by the Prussians, entered Poland. The old order has been restored.

In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Central Belarus with Minsk, Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia. Prussia received Gdansk, part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers.

In 1794, Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko, striving to preserve the sovereignty of Poland, raised an uprising. Catherine II suppressed it by sending troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov. This predetermined the third partition of Poland. In 1795 Prussia received Central Poland with Warsaw, Austria received Southern Poland with Lublin and Krakow. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus went to Russia. As a result of the partitions, Poland lost its statehood and sovereignty for more than a century. The Polish king abdicated and moved to Russia.

The reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples with Russia was of great progressive significance. These lands have historically been linked by common economic, political and cultural life. The Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples received more favorable opportunities for their further development, they were delivered from religious oppression. Accession to Russia helped Ukrainians and Belarusians to preserve their national culture and identity. Within the framework of a single state, three fraternal Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians - united again.

Tsarism in the struggle against the revolution in France. In 1789. France had a bourgeois revolution. The rebellious people of Paris stormed the Bastille on July 14. The bourgeois system was established in the country. The French Revolution had a huge impact on the entire course of world history. The entire 19th century passed under the sign of the French Revolution.

The fear of the “French infection”, “this terrible monster” (as the nobles called the revolution in France) forced Catherine II to take the most decisive measures to help the counter-revolutionaries. After the execution of King Louis XVI, Russia severed diplomatic and trade relations with France. The distribution of the works of the French Enlightenment was forbidden. Together with England, an attempt was made to put economic pressure on France. Inside Russia, repressions against progressive people intensified. It was at this time that A. N. Radishchev was exiled to Siberia, and N. I. Novikov was arrested. In 1794, an uprising in Poland prevented Catherine II from openly speaking out against France. The events in Poland saved the French Revolution.

Results of foreign policy. In general, the foreign policy results of the second half of the XVIII century. were positive for the further development of Russia and the peoples inhabiting it.

In Russia, unlike the colonial empires of Western Europe, which had overseas territories, the Russian population lived side by side with the peoples attached to the empire. Joint work on the development of the country's wealth objectively contributed to the rapprochement of peoples, allowed them to survive in the vast expanses of Eurasia. The ruling stratum of the annexed lands was an organic part of the Russian ruling elite. As a rule, the state almost did not interfere in the internal structure of small peoples. The possibility of free movement across the vast territory of the country, its development led to the "interlaced" resettlement of its inhabitants. This is how a single geopolitical space was formed on the territory of Eurasia.