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It is based on the forms of government, which, in turn, reflected the socio-political situation: from the tsarist rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.
Tsarist period and republic
During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium - the area of residence of the Latin tribe. During the period of the Early Republic, Rome expanded its territory significantly thanks to numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although the vertical system of control over the subordinate territories had not yet taken shape at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon led him to conflict with Carthage, a large state founded by the Phoenicians in North Africa. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began expansion to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor, Syria and Judea.
The Roman Empire
In the 1st century BC. e. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, as a result of which the ultimate victor, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julian-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not hold out in power for a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire fell on a relatively calm time of the II century, but already the III century was filled with the struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy position of the empire was complicated. The establishment of a dominant system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for a while by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the IV century, under the blows of the Huns, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of an active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which finally undermined the unity of the state. Overthrow the last emperor Western Roman Empire Romulus Augustus Germanic leader Odoacer September 4, 476 is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire.
Magistrates could submit a bill (rogatio) to the Senate, where it was discussed. Initially, the Senate had 100 members, during most of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of members, later their numbers varied. A place in the Senate was obtained after passing ordinary magistrates, but the censors had the right to lustration the Senate with the possibility of expelling individual senators. The Senate met in calendars, nons, and idam every month, and also on any day in the event of an emergency convocation of the senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convocation of the Senate and the comitia in the event that the appointed day was declared unfavorable for one or another "sign".
Dictators who were elected on special occasions and for no more than 6 months had extraordinary powers and, unlike ordinary magistrates, were not accountable. With the exception of the extraordinary magistracy of the dictator, all positions in Rome were collegiate.
Society
The laws
As for the Romans, for them the task of war was not just victory over the enemy or the establishment of peace; the war only ended to their satisfaction when the former enemies became "friends" or allies (socii) of Rome. The goal of Rome was not to subjugate the whole world to the power and imperium of Rome, but to spread the Roman system of alliances to all countries of the earth. The Roman idea was expressed by Virgil, and it was not just a poet's fantasy. The Roman people themselves, populus Romanus, owed their existence to such a war-born partnership, namely, an alliance between patricians and plebeians, the end of the internal strife between whom was put by the famous Leges XII Tabularum. But even this document of their history, sanctified by antiquity, was not considered by the Romans to be divinely inspired; they preferred to believe that Rome had sent a commission to Greece to study the systems of legislation there. Thus, the Roman Republic, itself based on law - an indefinite alliance between patricians and plebeians - used the leges instrument mainly for treaties and administration of the provinces and communities that belonged to the Roman system of alliances, in other words, to the ever-expanding group of Roman socii that formed societas Romana.
Social structure of Roman society
On the initial stage development of the Roman society consisted of two main estates - patricians and plebeians. According to the most common version of the origin of these two main classes, the patricians are the indigenous inhabitants of Rome, and the plebeians are an alien population, who, however, had civil rights. The patricians were first united in 100 and then in 300 genera. Initially, the plebeians were forbidden to marry patricians, which ensured the isolation of the patrician estate. In addition to these two estates, in Rome there were also patrician clients (in this case, the patrician acted in relation to the client in the role of patron) and slaves.
Over time social structure in general, it has become noticeably more complicated. Horsemen appeared - people not always of noble birth, but engaged in commercial operations (trade was considered an unworthy occupation by the patricians) and concentrated significant wealth in their hands. Among the patricians, the most noble families stood out, and some of the families gradually faded away. Around the 3rd century. BC e. the patriciate merges with the horsemen into the nobility.
At the age of 17-18, the young man had to leave the doctrine and undergo military service.
The Romans also cared about the fact that women received education in connection with the role they had in the family: organizer of family life and educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl. In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly noticeable role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers of estates and were engaged in trade, were put overseers over other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucratic apparatus of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects.
A literate slave was worth more than an illiterate one because he could be used for skilled work. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus.
Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to form a significant stratum in Rome. They strove to take the place of an employee, a manager in the state apparatus, to engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to appear, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves disadvantaged and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. Ultimately, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans away from government.
Army
The Roman army for almost the entire period of its existence was, as practice proved, the most advanced among the rest of the states of the Ancient World, having gone from the people's militia to professional regular infantry and cavalry with many auxiliary units and allied formations. At the same time, the main fighting force has always been the infantry (in the era of the Punic Wars, in fact, the marines that showed themselves perfectly appeared). The main advantages of the Roman army were mobility, flexibility and tactical training, which allowed it to operate in conditions of various terrain and in harsh weather conditions.
With a strategic threat to Rome or Italy, or a sufficiently serious military threat ( tumultus) all work was stopped, production was stopped and everyone who could simply carry weapons was recruited into the army - the inhabitants of this category were called tumultuarii (subitarii), and the army - tumultuarius (subitarius) exercitus... Since the usual recruitment procedure took longer, the commander-in-chief of this army, the magistrate took out special banners from the Capitol: red, indicating recruitment for the infantry, and green for the cavalry, after which he traditionally announced: “Qui respublicam salvam vult, me sequatur” (“Who wants save the republic, let him follow me "). The military oath was also pronounced not individually, but together.
Reward system
Rome looked at the lands of the provinces it conquered as its own ancestral estates (praedia populi Romani), and almost all classes of the Roman population sought to derive their own benefit from this: nobility - governing provinces, horsemen - engaged in ransoms in them, ordinary citizens - serving in the legions and enriching themselves with war booty. Only the metropolitan proletariat, free from military service, did not participate in the common division; however, the state guaranteed to all its loyal subjects the sale of grain imported from the provinces at a lower price. This provision did not only apply to slaves and foreigners, nor did it apply to the free-spirited.
The culture
Politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred) and historiography were recognized as deeds worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. On this basis, the early culture of Rome took shape. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, penetrating through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were perceived only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman system of values or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Roman culture during its heyday had a huge impact on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe.
The early Roman worldview was characterized by the feeling of being a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civic community and the priority of state interests over personal ones, combined with conservatism, which consisted in following the mores and customs of their ancestors. In - centuries. BC e. there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the personality began to be opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were rethought. As a result, in the era of the emperors, a new formula for governing Roman society was born - there should be plenty of bread and circuses. Well, a certain decline in morals among the crowd of townspeople has always been perceived by despotic rulers with a certain degree of favor.
Language
Latin language, the appearance of which is attributed to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. was the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the process of historical development of ancient Italy Latin language supplanted other Italic languages and eventually took a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Latin was spoken by the population of the small region of Latium (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower course of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latius was called Latins (lat. Latini), and its language was Latin. The center of this area was the city of Rome, after which the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves the Romans (Latin Romans).
There are several stages in the development of Latin:
- Archaic Latin.
- Classical Latin.
- Postclassical Latin.
- Late Latin.
Religion
Ancient Roman mythology in many aspects is close to Greek, up to the direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions associated with the worship of spirits also played an important role: geniuses, Penates, Lares, lemurs and mans. Also in ancient Rome, there were numerous colleges of priests.
Although religion played a significant role in traditional ancient Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. e. a significant part of the Roman elite was already indifferent to religion. In the 1st century BC. e. Roman philosophers (most notably Titus Lucretius Carus and Mark Tullius Cicero) largely revise or question many of the traditional religious positions.
Art, music, literature
Cloth
Morals
Same-sex relationships in ancient Roman society cannot be characterized in terms of modern Western culture. There are no words in Latin to denote concepts that correspond to today's concepts of heterosexuality or homosexuality. Any sexual relationship was characterized by bipolarity - an active, dominant, “masculine” role on the one hand and a passive, submissive, “feminine” role on the other.
Kitchen
The social evolution of Roman society was first studied by the German scientist G.B. Niebuhr. Ancient Roman life and life were based on developed family legislation and religious rituals.
To make better use of daylight, the Romans usually got up very early, often around four in the morning, and after breakfast, they began to engage in public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.
In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mainly thick, steeply cooked porridge made from spelled, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. The culinary arts began to develop in the 3rd century. BC e. and reached unprecedented heights under the empire.
The science
Roman science inherited a number of Greek studies, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics) it was mainly of an applied nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numbering and the Julian calendar that received worldwide distribution. At the same time, its characteristic feature was the presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form. Jurisprudence and agricultural sciences reached a special flourishing, big number works were devoted to architecture and urban planning and military technology. The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedic scientists Guy Pliny Secundus the Elder, Mark Terentius Varro and Lucius Annei Seneca.
Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the wake of the Greek, with which it was largely associated. Stoicism is the most widespread in philosophy.
Roman science has achieved remarkable success in the field of medicine. Among the outstanding physicians of Ancient Rome, one can note: Dioscorides, a pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany, Soranus of Ephesus, an obstetrician and pediatrician, Claudius Galen, a talented anatomist who discovered the functions of nerves and the brain.
Encyclopedic treatises written during the Roman era remained the most important source of scientific knowledge for most of the Middle Ages.
The legacy of ancient Rome
Roman culture, with its developed ideas about the expediency of things and actions, about a person's duty to himself and the state, about the meaning of law and justice in the life of society, supplemented ancient Greek culture with its desire to understand the world, a developed sense of proportion, beauty, harmony, pronounced game element... Ancient culture, as a combination of these two cultures, became the basis of European civilization.
The cultural heritage of Ancient Rome can be traced in scientific terminology, architecture, and literature. For a long time, Latin has been the language of international communication for all educated people in Europe. Until now, it is used in scientific terminology. On the basis of the Latin language in the former Roman possessions, the Romance languages arose, which are spoken by the peoples of a large part of Europe. Among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans is the Roman law they created, which played a huge role in the further development of legal thought. It was in the Roman dominions that Christianity arose and then became the state religion - a religion that united all European peoples and greatly influenced the history of mankind.
Historiography
Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli, also during the Enlightenment in France.
The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon, "The History of the Decline and Collapse of the Roman Empire", which covered the period from the end of the II century to the fall of a fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon appreciated the virtue of Roman citizens, at the same time, the disintegration of the empire according to him began already under Commodus, and Christianity became the catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside.
Niebuhr became the founder of the critical movement and wrote the work "Roman History", where it is brought up to the First Punic War. Niebuhr attempted to establish how the Roman tradition arose. In his opinion, the Romans, like other peoples, had a historical epic, preserved mainly in noble families. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, considered from the angle of the formation of the Roman community.
In the Napoleonic era, V. Durui's work "History of the Romans" appeared, emphasizing the then popular Caesarian period.
A new historiographic milestone was opened by the work of Theodor Mommsen, one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. An important role was played by his voluminous work "Roman History", as well as "Roman State Law" and "Collection of Latin Inscriptions" ("Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum").
Later came the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero - "The Greatness and Fall of Rome." The work of I. M. Grevs "Essays on the history of Roman land tenure, mainly in the era of the Empire" was published, where, for example, information appeared about the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners of the end of the Republic, and the model of the average estate of the August era was considered the economy of Horace.
Ancient Rome - ancient state centered in the city of Rome (Lazio region, Italy), gradually expanding to the entire Apennine Peninsula, most of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Ancient Rome existed for about eight hundred years.
Kingdom Period
2000 BC e. The Indo-Europeans, kindred to the Greeks, invade the Apennine Peninsula from the north.
900-800 BC e. Etruscans arrive on the Apennine Peninsula by sea, probably from Asia Minor.
753 BC e. According to legend, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded Rome, a city on seven hills (Aventin, Viminal, Capitol, Quirinal, Palatine, Celius, Esquiline).
753-715 BC e. According to legend, the reign of Romulus, the first king of Rome.
616-510 BC e. Reign of Etruscan kings from the Tarquinian dynasty. The emergence of the estates of patricians and plebeians, as well as slaves.
Republic period
510-509 BC e. Overthrow of Etruscan rule. The Romans gained state independence. Military and political power passed to the Senate and the elected consuls (aristocratic republic).
508 BC e. The treaty between Rome and Carthage recognizes the exclusive interests of Rome in Apennine Peninsula and Carthage in Africa.
451-449 BC e. Written fixation of Roman law was carried out ("Laws of 12 tables" - the basis of Roman legislation over the next 600 years).
445 BC e. The legality of marriages between plebeians and patricians was recognized. Merging of the plebeian elite into one class with the patricians (nobility).
406-396 BC e. The third and last war of the Romans with the Etruscan city of Veii (north of Rome).
390 BC e. The invasion of the Apennines by the Celts ("Gauls") from the north. The defeat of the Romans and the temporary capture of the city.
343-265 BC e. Wars of Rome with other Italic tribes (Equus, Volski, Samnites, Latins) and Greek city-states in Italy (including with Pir, king of Epirus). Rome seized dominion over the entire peninsula.
287 BC e. Full legal equality of plebeians and patricians is accepted.
264-146 BC e. Punic wars between Rome and Carthage (modern Tunisia) for domination over the Mediterranean:
The first (264-241 BC). Annexation by Rome of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (the first Roman provinces);
The second (218-201 BC). Initially - the victory of the Carthaginians under the command of Hannibal, finally - the victory of the Romans at the walls of Carthage. Later (183 BC) Hannibal preferred death to extradition to Rome;
The third (149-146 BC). Siege and destruction of Carthage. Formation of the Roman province of Africa. The annexation of Iberia (part of modern Spain).
229-146 BC e. Expansion of Rome into the Eastern Mediterranean. Capture of Greece, Macedonia, Syria.
138-101 BC e. Slave revolts in Sicily and Pergamum. Suppressed by the Roman army.
88 BC e. Civil war between the consuls Gaius Maria and Sulla over a clash of interests within the ruling class. The final victory of Sulla and the Senate nobility supporting him.
82-79 BC e. The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, directed against all democratic reforms, had as its goal to overcome the state crisis of Rome. The social basis of the dictatorship was formed by the senatorial oligarchy and the army. In 79 BC. e. Sulla, admitting that he “had not achieved his goals,” resigned and returned to private life.
73-71 BC e. Revolt of Spartacus, the largest slave action in the Roman state. The army of Spartacus was defeated by the Roman army of Mark Licinius Crassus. Spartak died in battle.
70 BC e. Marcus Licinius Crasse and Gnaeus Pompeii were elected consuls.
67 BC e. Having received special powers, a strong fleet and the necessary troops, Gnaeus Pompeii eliminated piracy in the Mediterranean within 60 days.
66-62 BC e. Eastern campaigns of Gnaeus Pompey. As a result, a victory was won over Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus. The Romans marched further into Syria, where Pompeii legally abolished former kingdom Seleucids and formed a new Roman province of Syria, to which he annexed the Phoenician cities and Judea.
60 BC e. The first triumvirate. An unspoken agreement between Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompey on a joint struggle against the Senate oligarchy.
59 BC e. Gaius Julius Caesar was elected consul.
58-51 BC e. Gallic campaigns of Guy Julius Caesar. He conquered all of Gaul, defeated the Germanic tribes, made two invasions of Britain (55-54 BC). The campaigns were distinguished by the ruthless mass extermination of the vanquished.
52 BC e. Gnaeus Pompeii became the sole consul and established a de facto dictatorship.
49-45 BC e. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey for power. The crossing of the river by the troops of Caesar
Rubicon (January 49 BC). Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus (August 48 BC). Flight of Pompey to Egypt and his death. Caesar's wars in Egypt and Asia Minor, return to Rome.
45-44 BC e. Dictatorship of Guy Julius Caesar. Introduction of the Julian chronology (solar calendar, "old style"). Assassination of Caesar in the Senate (March 44 BC).
44-31 BC e. Civil wars for power in Rome. Ended up with the victory of one of the members of the second Guy Octavius (Guy Julius Caesar)
Empire period
27 BC e. The Senate confers the title "Emperor Caesar Augustus" on Guy Octavius. Change of the form of government in the Roman state to an authoritarian one. The emergence of the Roman Empire; the first emperor Caesar Augustus ruled until 14 AD. e.
19 BC e. Completion of the conquest of all of Spain by the Romans.
14-37 BC e. The reign of Tiberius, the stepson of Augustus. Relying on the imperial guard, he pursued an autocratic policy. Achieved an improvement in the financial situation of the empire.
37-41 The reign of Caligula. It was notable for massive property confiscations and tax increases. His striving for unlimited power and demanding honors for himself as a god displeased the Senate; was killed by the guards.
40–41 The Romans occupied Mauretania (present-day Morocco and western Algeria), inhabited by Berber tribes. Dividing it into two parts, they declared them Roman provinces.
41-54 The Board of Claudius. He laid the foundations of the imperial bureaucracy, improved the financial position of the state, streamlined taxation, and distributed the rights of Roman citizenship to the provincials. Poisoned by wife Agrippina, mother of Nero.
43 The Romans begin their conquest of Britain. South Britain proclaimed a Roman province
48-79 The Romans conquer Wales.
54-68 Rule of Nero. All kinds of buildings and games absorbed huge funds from the state treasury. By repressions and confiscations, the emperor turned against himself various strata of Roman society. After the treason, the guards committed suicide.
64 The worst fire in Rome, which destroyed 10 of the 14 districts of the city. To deflect the suspicion of arson from himself, Nero accused Jews and Christians of it (the first persecution of Christians).
69-79 The Board of Vespasian. He was much broader than his predecessors, extended to the provincials the rights of Roman and Latin citizenship.
78-85 Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman governor of Britain, extends Roman rule to the highlands of Scotland.
79 Mount Vesuvius erupts, destroying the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia.
79-81 Reign of Titus, son of Vespasian. In Roman historiography, Titus is considered one of the best emperors; continued the policy of Vespasian in relation to the provincial population, showed concern for the people after natural disasters (fires in cities, the eruption of Vesuvius), built public buildings in Rome (Thermes, Colosseum, etc.).
81-96 Reign of Domitian, younger brother of Titus. The strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus and the infringement of the rights of the Senate caused the discontent of the aristocracy. Killed as a result of a palace conspiracy.
98-117 Trajan's reign. As a result of victorious wars, the empire expanded its borders as much as possible: the territories of Dacia (101-106), Arabia (106), Greater Armenia (114), Mesopotamia (115) were conquered. Now the eastern border of the Roman Empire ran along the Tigris River. In the eyes of the Roman slave nobility, Trajan was the ideal ruler.
117-138 The Board of Adrian. Under him, imperial power and centralization increased. government agencies... Adrian departed from the aggressive policy of his predecessor, in 117 he ended the war with the Parthians, abandoning Armenia and Mesopotamia. A system of powerful fortifications and defensive ramparts was created on the borders of the empire.
138-161 Board of Antoninus Pius. He continued the policy of Adrian, avoided wars and erected defensive structures on the borders.
161-180 Reign of Marcus Aurelius. Marked by defensive battles that heralded the end of the empire's tranquil development. For domestic policy characterized by agreement of Marcus Aurelius with the Senate, while strengthening the state apparatus and expanding its functions. Marcus Aurelius went down in the history of philosophy as one of the most prominent representatives of late Stoicism.
162-166 War of Rome with the Parthians over influence in Armenia. The outbreak of a plague epidemic forced the Romans to retreat. The plague brought by the troops into the empire raged until 189 (the emperor Marcus Aurelius himself died from it). According to the peace treaty (166), Northern Mesopotamia joined the Roman Empire, and Armenia, while nominally retaining its independence, actually became dependent on Rome.
180-192 Reign of Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius. He relied on the guards, pursued senators, confiscating their property. He demanded his deification. Participated in gladiator battles. Killed by conspirators from among the courtiers.
193-211 The reign of Septimius Severus. He tried to overcome the internal political crisis of the Roman Empire by establishing an open military monarchy. He pursued a policy aimed at weakening the Senate, executed his numerous enemies, and confiscated their property. Strengthened the borders of the empire.
195-198 Septimius Sever repelled the Parthian invasions of Armenia and Syria, and then captured all of Mesopotamia. A new province was organized on the occupied lands.
205-211 Septimius Severus repelled an attack by the hill tribes of Scotland against the province of Britain and rebuilt the system of Roman defenses. He died in Britain from an illness.
211-217 Reign of Caracalla, the eldest son of Septimius Severus. In 212 he issued an Edict granting the rights of Roman citizenship to the entire free population1 of the Roman Empire. The policy of pressure on the Senate, the execution of the nobility, the beating of the inhabitants of Alexandria, who opposed the additional recruitment of the army, caused discontent and led to the assassination of Caracalla by the conspirators.
222-235 Rule of the North by Alexander of the Syrian side branch of the dynasty. The state was actually ruled by the emperor's grandmother and mother with the help of their advisers. Public policy was conducted in agreement with the Senate, the costs of the army were reduced. Aggravation of relations between the emperor and the military led to a mutiny in the legions. The emperor, his mother and their advisers were killed by their disgruntled soldiers during the war with the Alemanni on the Rhine.
235-238 Board of Maximin. The son of a Thracian peasant, who went from an ordinary soldier to the commander of an army, which proclaimed him emperor. His policy, affecting the interests of the Senate and large landowners and aimed at meeting military needs, was the cause of the uprising. In the war with the Senate party, Maximinus died during a mutiny that broke out in his own camp.
238-244 Reign of Gordian III. In 242-244 he led the struggle against the Persians in Syria and Mesopotamia, repelled their invasion (241-244). Killed at the hands of conspirators from his inner circle on the Euphrates.
244-249 The Board of Philip the Arab. Came to power by killing Emperor Gordian III. He made peace with the Persians, repelled the attack of the Goths (245-247). He fell in a battle with the emperor Decius near Verona.
249-251 Reign of Decius Trajan. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops in opposition to Philip. He organized the first systematic persecution of Christians throughout the state. Killed in battle against invading Goths.
253-259 Valerian's Board. He announced his son Gallienus as co-ruler, who ruled until 268. Continued persecution of Christians. A sharp deterioration in the situation on the borders of the empire, continuous invasions from across the Danube by the Goths and other tribes, on the Rhine border - the Franks and Alemanni, in North Africa - the Blemies and nomads of Mauretania, in the east - the Persians, who captivated the emperor himself. Valerian died in captivity.
260-268 Period of political anarchy in the Roman Empire. Local commanders proclaimed themselves emperors. The power of Gallienus was actually recognized only in Rome and Italy. Increased incursions by hostile neighbors were exacerbated by a series of uprisings. Earthquakes and outbreaks of epidemics occurred in various provinces. The emperor was killed by conspirators.
268-270 Reign of Claudius, nicknamed Gothic for his successful war with the Goths. The period of restoration of the military power of the Roman Empire (strengthening of the army, reorganization of the Danube provinces, forced settlement of uninhabited Roman territories by the Goths). Died of the plague.
270-275 The reign of Aurelian. He repulsed several major invasions of the Roman Empire, restored its political unity (274), for which the Senate presented him with the honorary title of "restorer of the world." Aurelian was the first to be officially called "lord and god" and wore a tiara. He fell victim to a conspiracy during the campaign against the Persians.
276-282 Reign of Emperor Probus. Consolidated the power of Rome in Gaul and along the entire Rhine border. He died during a riot of the military, outraged by the fact that the emperor forced them to build large defensive structures in peacetime.
285-305 Reign of Diocletian. Carried out reforms that stabilized the position of the empire; appointed himself three co-rulers; divided the empire into 4 parts, and those, in turn, into 12 new provinces; strengthened the army; streamlined taxation. The establishment of an unlimited monarchy is associated with Diocletian. Trying to stop the spread of Christianity on the territory of the empire, in 303-305 he organized a general persecution of Christians. Abdicated in 305.
312-337 The reign of Constantine I the Great. After many years of struggle with the co-rulers, he became the sole ruler of the empire. He consistently centralized the state apparatus. He supported the Christian church, while also preserving pagan cults. At 321 he declared Sunday an official "day of rest." In 330 he founded Constantinople on the site of the ancient city of Byzantium.
325 Cathedral of Nicaea. Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire.
359-361 War between Rome and Persia, which ended in a peace treaty beneficial to Persia.
361-363 The Board of Julian. Having received a Christian education, he, having become emperor, declared himself a supporter of paganism. He issued edicts against Christians, for which he received the nickname "Apostate." He died during a campaign against the Persians.
363-364 Rule of Jovian. Canceled all of Julian's decrees on religious issues, completely restored the dominant position of Christianity. Shortly before his death, he was forced to cede Mesopotamia to the Persians.
383-395 The reign of Theodosius I the Great. In 380 he established the dominance of Orthodox Christianity and persecuted adherents of paganism. Under him, the Olympic Games were canceled (as pagan), the Library of Alexandria was burned, and many pagan sanctuaries were destroyed.
395 After the death of Theodosius I the Great, the entire Roman Empire, according to his will, was divided between his sons: the 11-year-old Honorius became the emperor of the West, the 18-year-old Arkady, the first ruler of the Byzantine Empire, became the emperor of the East.
Western Roman period
395-423 The Board of Honorius. In fact, the country until 408 was ruled by the commander Stilicho, and then the real power passed to the courtiers.
404 Transfer of the capital of the empire from Rome to Ravenna, a city in Northern Italy at the mouth of the Pad River, a port on the Adriatic Sea.
407 The Romans actually left Britain.
425-455 The reign of Valentinian III. Up to 437 regents, his mother was with him. Until 454 he was under the influence of the commander Aetius, who in 451 with the help of the Visigoths defeated the Huns invading Gaul. In 454, Valentinian executed Aetius, but soon after that he himself was killed by the adherents of the latter, allied with the senate nobility. Strengthening the process of the collapse of the empire. Capture of Africa by vandals; Spain, Gaul and Pannonia (Danube province) became almost independent.
454 Pope Leo I the Great seeks from Emperor Valentinian III the recognition of the pope's supreme judicial powers (submission of bishops to the papal court, giving the pope's decisions the force of law), which contributed to the transformation of the Roman bishop into the head of the Church in the West.
476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The commander of the imperial guard, Odoacer, deposed the 16-year-old emperor Romulus Augustulus, who, ironically, bore the name of the founder of the city of Rome and the Roman state.
Tribes from North Asia began to settle in Italy between 2000 and 1000 BC. One of the tribes who spoke a language called Latin settled along the banks of the Tiber River, over time this settlement became the city of Rome.
The Romans had several kings, but they caused discontent among the people. The people decided to establish a republic, headed by a leader who was elected for a certain period of time. If the Romans did not like the leader, after the expiration of the established period, they chose another.
Rome was a republic for about 500 years, during which the Roman army conquered many new lands. However, in 27 BC, after the Roman conquest of Egypt and the death of Antony and Cleopatra
, the dictator again became the head of state. It was Augustus, the first Roman emperor. By the beginning of his reign, the population of the Roman Empire was 60 million people.
Initially, the Roman army consisted of ordinary citizens, but at the height of the empire's power, well-trained professionals served as soldiers. The army was divided into legions, each of which had about 6,000 foot soldiers, or legionnaires. The legion consisted of ten cohorts, a cohort of six centuries of 100 men each. Each legion had its own cavalry of 700 horsemen.
On foot, Roman soldiers were called legionnaires. The Legionnaire wore an iron helmet and armor over a woolen tunic and leather skirt. He had to carry a sword, dagger, shield, spear and all his supplies.
The army often traveled more than 30 km a day. Nothing could resist him. If there was a deep river in front of the army, the soldiers built a floating bridge, tying together wooden rafts.
Britain was one of the Roman colonies. Queen Boudicca and her Icene tribe rebelled against Roman rule and reclaimed many of the British cities captured by the Romans, but were ultimately defeated.
Rule in Rome When Rome became a republic, its people were convinced that no one should have too much power. Therefore, the Romans chose officials, called masters, who exercised the government. The most influential magistrates were two consuls, elected for a term of one year; they had to rule in harmony with each other. After the completion of this term, most of the Masters became members of the Senate.
Julius Caesar was a brilliant military leader and autocratic ruler of Rome. He subjugated many lands, ruled the lands of southern and northern Gaul (now France). Returning in 46 BC. triumphant to Rome, he began to rule as a dictator (a ruler with absolute power). However, some senators were jealous of Caesar and wanted to return the senate to its former power. In 44 BC. several senators stabbed Julius Caesar to death right on the premises of the Senate in Rome.
After Caesar's death, a struggle for power unfolded between two prominent Romans. One was the consul Mark Antony, beloved of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. The second was Caesar's great-nephew Octavian. In 31 BC. Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra and defeated them at the Battle of Actium. In 27 g. Octavian became the first Roman emperor and took the name Augustus.
The emperors ruled Rome for over 400 years. They were not kings, but they had absolute power. The imperial "crown" was a laurel wreath, a symbol military victory.
The first emperor, Augustus, ruled from 27 BC. to 14 AD He returned the world to the empire, but before his death appointed himself a successor. From that time on, the Romans could no longer choose their leaders.
During its heyday, the Roman Empire included France, Spain, Germany, and most of the former Greek Empire. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, the main part of Spain and lands in Eastern Europe and North Africa. Under the Roman emperors, new territorial acquisitions followed: Britain, western North Africa and land in the Middle East.
Urban life
The device of the Roman house
Conquering new lands and expanding the empire, the ancient Romans instilled in the conquered peoples their way of life. Today, many signs of their former presence can be seen.
The Romans borrowed a lot from the ancient Greeks, but their civilization was significantly different. They were excellent engineers and builders and preferred to feel at home everywhere.
The first houses of the Romans were built of brick or stone, but they also used materials such as concrete. Later, buildings were erected from concrete and faced with bricks or stones.
Streets in cities were straight and intersected at right angles. Many cities were built for Roman citizens who moved to the conquered lands. The settlers carried plant seeds with them to grow their usual crops. Today, some fruits and vegetables of Italian origin are considered their own in the lands where they were once brought by the Romans.
Peasants from the countryside brought their products to the cities and sold them in the markets. The main market square, as well as the seat of the authorities, was the forum. The Romans minted coins, and people bought the things they needed with money, rather than exchanging natural goods.
Ancient Roman city in France. The local lifestyle and architecture of the houses were Roman.
Basic information about Roman houses and cities comes from the ruins of two ancient cities, Pompeii and Herculaneum, destroyed in 79 AD. eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Pompeii were buried under hot ash, and Herculaneum was swept by mud streams of volcanic origin. Thousands of people died. In both cities, archaeologists have unearthed entire streets with houses and shops.
A few hours before the eruption of Vesuvius, people in Herculaneum were busy with their daily chores.
Wealthy Romans lived in large villas with several rooms. In the center of the villa was an "atrium", the main hall, over which there was no roof to let in enough light. When it rained, water from a hole in the roof collected in a pool called an impluvium. All rooms in the villa were located around the atrium.
The wealthy who owned town houses bathed in luxury. Their inhabitants ate their food, lying on couches in front of a low table, where the servants served food. Women and guests of honor could sit in chairs, but everyone else was content with chairs. The houses had bedrooms, living rooms, and libraries. Inhabitants could walk in the courtyard and pray at the altar dedicated to the patron god of the hearth.
The dwellings of the poor were completely different. Some people lived in apartments above shops, others in houses, divided into separate rooms or apartments.
Roman builders
Roads and aqueducts. Roman baths
The Romans were great builders and engineers. They built 85,000 km of roads throughout the empire and many aqueducts to supply cities with water. Some aqueducts were huge stone structures built over the valleys.
Roman roads were planned by land surveyors who accompanied the army on the march. The roads were made as straight as possible, and they followed the shortest path. When they decided to build a road, the soldiers, along with the slaves, dug a wide trench. Then a roadbed was built, laying stones, sand and concrete into the trench layer by layer.
Construction of an aqueduct and a road during the time of Ancient Rome.
Roman baths Wealthy Romans had baths and central heating in their homes. The heating system was located under the floor of the house, from where hot air entered the premises through channels in the walls.
Most cities had public baths where anyone could go. In addition to hygiene needs, the baths served as a place for meetings and conversations. The bathers passed from one room to another in succession. In the main room, the "caldaria," a slave rubbed oil into the visitor's body. The bather first basked in a bath of warm water, and then got into the next room, "sudatorium" (from the Latin word "sudor" meaning "sweat"), where there was a pool with very hot water, and steam filled the air. The bather washed off oil and dirt from himself using a device called a "shear". Then the bather found himself in the "tepidarium", where he cooled slightly before entering the "frigidarium" and plunge into a pool of cold water.
In between washings, people sat down to chat with friends. Many were engaged in strength physical exercises in the gym, "spheristeria".
The ruins of some baths have been preserved, so, in " Large baths»In the English resort town of Wat, the water still flows through the canals laid by the Romans.
The men went to the bathhouse after work. Women could use the baths only at certain times.
Water for baths and for other needs was supplied through aqueducts. The word "aqueduct" comes from the Latin words "water" and "pull". An aqueduct is a conduit for supplying cities with clean river or lake water, usually at ground level or in a pipe underground. The aqueducts thrown across the valleys were arched. On the territory of the former Roman Empire, about 200 aqueducts have survived to this day.
This is what the Roman aqueduct Pont du Gard in Nimes (France), built almost 2000 years ago, looks like today. The Romans looked for a river or lake that lay above the city, and then built an inclined aqueduct so that the water itself could flow to the city.
Sports
Chariot racing. Gladiators. The emperor
The Romans had about 120 national holidays a year. These days, the Romans visited theaters, went to chariot races or gladiator fights.
Chariot races and gladiator fights were held in the so-called urban "circuses" in large oval arenas.
Chariot racing was a very dangerous sport. The charioteers drove their teams around the arena at top speed. The rules were allowed to ram other chariots and collide with each other, so that the chariots often overturned. Although the charioteers wore protective clothing, they often died. However, the crowd loved chariot racing. This spectacle attracted thousands of people who screamed with delight as the chariots rushed around in circles.
The circus arena was oval with a stone barrier in the middle. The audience sat or stood in the stands. 4 chariots were competing at the same time, and the audience was betting which chariot would come first. The chariots had to run around the arena 7 times.
After death, the emperors of ancient Rome were worshiped as gods. Christians refused this. Around 250 A.D. thousands of Christians were thrown into prison or given to be torn apart by lions in the circus arena.
In fear for their lives, Christians secretly met in the catacombs (underground burials) to pray together.
In 313 A.D. Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity.
Gladiators Gladiators were slaves or criminals who were trained to fight to the death in front of the crowd. They were armed with shields and swords or nets and tridents.
The emperor himself was often present at the battle of gladiators. If the gladiator was wounded and asked for mercy, it depended on the emperor whether he would live or die. If a fighter fought selflessly, he was left alive. Otherwise, the emperor gave a sign to the winner to finish off the vanquished.
Emperors Some Roman emperors were good rulers, like the first emperor Augustus. The long years of his reign brought peace to the people. Other emperors were brutal. Tiberius strengthened the Roman Empire, but turned into a hated tyrant. Under his successor, Caligula, fear still reigned. Caligula was probably insane; once he appointed his horse consul and built a palace for him!
One of the most cruel emperors was Nero. In 64 A.D. part of Rome was destroyed by fire. Nero accused Christians of arson and executed many. It is possible that he himself was the arsonist.
It is said that Nero, who was distinguished by vanity and considered himself a great musician, played music on the lyre while watching a huge fire.
Notes:
Alexander the Great
Alexander's great campaign. Science in the era of Hellenism
Alexander the Great was born in Macedonia, a mountainous region on the northern borders of Greece. His father Philip became king of Macedonia in 359 BC. and united all of Greece. When in 336 BC. he died, Alexander became the new king. He was then 20 years old.
Alexander's teacher was the Greek writer and philosopher Aristotle, who instilled in the young man a love of art and poetry. But Alexander was still a brave and brilliant warrior, and wanted to create a powerful empire.
Alexander the Great was a fearless leader and strove to conquer new lands. Setting out on his great campaign, he had an army of 30,000 foot soldiers and 5,000 horsemen.
Alexander took his first battle with Persia, the old enemy of Greece. In 334 BC. he went on a military campaign to Asia, where he defeated the army of the Persian king Darius III. After that, Alexander decided to subjugate the entire Persian Empire to the Greeks.
First, he took the Phoenician city of Tire by storm, and then conquered Egypt. Continuing his conquests, he took possession of the three palaces of the Persian kings in Babylon, Susa and Persepolis. It took Alexander the Great 3 years to conquer the eastern part of the Persian Empire, after which, in 326 BC. he went to North India.
By this time, Alexander's army had been on the march for 11 years. He wanted to conquer all of India, but the army was tired and wanted to return home. Alexander agreed, but did not have time to return to Greece. At the age of only 32, he died in Babylon of a fever in 323 BC.
The conquest campaign of Alexander the Great passed through the Middle East, Egypt, Asia and ended in North India.
For Alexander, India was on the edge of the known world, and he wanted to continue the campaign, but the army began to grumble. His favorite horse, Bucephalus (or Bucephalus), worn by Alexander all this time, fell in battle with the Indian king Porus in 326 BC.
When Alexander conquered a country, he founded in it Greek colony to forestall possible riots. These colonies, among which there were 16 cities named Alexandria, were ruled by his soldiers. However, Alexander died, leaving behind no plans to manage such a huge empire. As a result, the empire was divided into three parts - Macedonia, Persia and Egypt, and each of them was headed by a Greek military leader. The period between the death of Alexander and the fall of the Greek Empire under the onslaught of the Romans in 30 BC. known as the Hellenistic era.
The era of Hellenism is known for its scientific achievements, and the city of Alexandria in Egypt was the main center of knowledge. Many poets and scientists came to Alexandria. There the mathematicians Pythagoras and Euclid developed their laws of geometry, while others studied medicine and the motion of stars.
In the II century A.D. in Alexandria (Egypt) lived Claudius Ptolemy, who studied astronomy.
He mistakenly believed that the Earth is the center of the Universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it.
Lacking a single ruler, Alexander's empire was gradually conquered by the Romans. Egypt lasted longer than the rest of the empire, but in 30 BC. the Roman emperor Augustus captured him too. The queen of Alexandria, Cleopatra, committed suicide along with her Roman lover Mark Anthony.
TO cultural heritage Ancient Greece, its philosophical thought and art in Europe were again turned in the 15th century, during the Renaissance, or Renaissance, and since then it continues to influence our culture.
The rocky city of Petra in Jordan was inhabited by a people who called themselves the Nabateans. The Nabateans were heavily influenced by Hellenic architecture.
As usual, it all started with stones
Inhabitants of the Paleolithic and Neolithic era with the end of the last ice age left behind a traditional set of rock paintings inherent in the culture of the Stone Age. They did their best in the Val Camonica Valley (Lombardy): 8000 years ago, the Camun tribe carved more than 140,000 petroglyphs on the stone. Along with the typical depictions of hunting and gathering scenes, the Kamuns also left cosmological symbols, sketches of ritual scenes and scenes of bestiality. After 4000 years, in the Bronze Age, tribes began to arrive on the peninsula from everywhere, leaving behind not only rock paintings and stone structures (the Nuragi are best preserved on the island of Sardinia). Ligurs (Liguria), Veneti (Venice), Latins (Lazio), Sardis (Sardinia), Umbras (Umbria) and others laid the foundations for the future regions of Italy.
Temples and tombs: hot days of Etruria and Magna Graecia
By the 7th century BC. e. the dominant positions were taken by two cultures. Greek trading posts and colonies in the south formed Great Greece (Magna Graecia). In the north, the mysterious Etruscans, who lived between the Arno and Tiber rivers, set the tone; they controlled trade and tribes throughout the territory, all the way to the Alps.
Both cultures were dominated by powerful city-states. In Magna Graecia, these are Taras (now Taranto), located on the mainland, and Syracuse, on the island of Sicily. With the proceeds of trade, both cities erected magnificent temples, some of which have adorned Italy for two and a half thousand years. The cities of Etruria (as the land of the Etruscans was called), such as Tarquinius (now the city of Tarquinia in Lazio), had their own kings, their own ruling elite and were relatively self-sufficient. They traded (and sometimes fought) among themselves and with other states. Little has survived from the Etruscan cities. Excavations suggest that the Etruscans performed lavish funeral rites: found frescoes depict activities such as dances, feasts and games during burial ceremonies. The arrangement of the Etruscan tombs and the tradition of priority inheritance along the female line indicate that the Etruscans probably had gender equality. Alas, for both the Greeks and the Etruscans, the prosperous times did not last long. Wars with northern tribes and mainland Greeks weakened the Etruscan states, and Great Greece was destroyed by internal strife. By the 4th century BC. e. both cultures gave way to Italy's rising star, Rome.
Republican Rome: an era of prosperity ... for some
According to Titus Livy, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus were born of Mars, thrown into the Tiber, and fed by a she-wolf. In 753 BC. e. Romulus founded Rome, but first dealt with his brother. An interesting story and, perhaps, only partially fictional: it is possible that the dynasty of the Etruscan kings of Ancient Rome is descended from a certain Romulus.
In 509 BC. e. this dynasty suddenly ceased to exist; on the advice of the ancient Senate, power was transferred into the hands of two elected consuls from the Latins - this is how the Roman Republic arose. Rome, squeezed in relative obscurity between the Etruscan and Latin fiefdoms, was rapidly gaining strength. However, by the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. he had already conquered his opponents with might and main - the remnants of independent tribes on the territory of Central and Northern Italy: he thrashed and taxed the Etruscans (Tuscany), Volscans (southern Lazio) and Samnites (Southern Apennines). Greater Greece surrendered next. Its fall was accelerated by the annexation of Sicily to Rome during the 1st Punic War. After the victory of Rome over the Celts in the valley of the Po River (c. 200 BC), virtually all of Italy fell under the rule of the Romans. Some time later, the Romans established their rule in Macedonia, Corinth, regions of Asia Minor, Spain and Africa. The conquered lands helped to feed the new Roman aristocracy (formed from among the patricians - titled nobility), as well as plebeians (commoners), the richest of whom owned slaves, large country estates and were not alien to hedonism. The impoverished Italian peasants, unable to withstand the competition with the import of cheap foreign grain, abandoned their land and rushed to Rome, where they settled in insulae - apartment buildings.
Roman matchmaking
One event that occurred during the period early history Rome, is of particular interest to people of art. In the VIII century BC. e. the Romans kidnapped women of the Sabine tribe, who were invited to the city for the festivities in honor of Neptune. Apparently, there were few women of childbearing age in Rome. According to Titus Livy, the captured Sabine women resigned themselves to their fate, being subdued by the beautiful courtship of the Romans-men.
Life in the Roman Empire
The aristocracy more and more plunged into the abyss of moral decay, and among the poor people there was growing dissatisfaction with the behavior of the nobility. Many politicians in different periods of Roman history tried to suppress popular unrest - but it was all in vain. This continued until, in 83 BC. e. the military leader Lucius Cornelius Sulla, declaring himself a dictator, did not destroy all resistance of the people to the oligarchy. The people were avenged, to some extent, by Gaius Julius Caesar, a reformer consul who at first shared power with the triumvirs: Gnei Pompey and Mark Licinius Crassus. Ultimately, after the death of Crassus and the victory over Wrath Pompey under Pharsalus in 48 BC. e., Caesar became the sole ruler. Gaius Julius Caesar is often called a "life-long dictator", but this is a delusion: he carried out the long-awaited reforms in Rome, strengthened the economy and brought the aristocracy to justice. With his "new broom" Caesar, however, made enemies for himself and was killed by Brutus, Cassius and other conspirators in the Ides of March 44 BC. e. As several claimants sought to rule Rome, civil war broke out. The power struggle ended in 31 BC. BC, when Caesar's grand-nephew (and his adopted son) Octavian defeated Mark Antony, who, as you know, committed suicide along with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Octavian received the title Augustus, which was bestowed on him by the now obedient Senate. Augustus became a good emperor. The Juliev-Klavdiev dynasty founded by him gave its branches. The last Roman imperial dynasty withered only five centuries later.
At the beginning of the 2nd century, the Roman Empire reached its heyday. Its territories, stretching from the north of Britain, covered the entire Mediterranean and stretched east to Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The outlying provinces became the backbone of Rome's prosperity, a source of tax revenues, precious metals, cultural property, slaves and food. Over time, they looked less and less like oppressed dominions (only the fate of the slaves did not change). The provinces were allowed to maintain cultural identity, but at the same time they were forced to adopt the mechanisms of the functioning of the Roman state.
Tuscan people are descendants of the Turks
Recent DNA studies have confirmed the assumption made in the 5th century by the Greek scientist Herodotus that the Etruscan civilization came to Italy from overseas, from Turkey. Scientists have established this connection by examining the DNA of modern Tuscans living in cities that were once founded by the Etruscans.
The good, the bad, the assassins: the five Roman emperors
Caligula (reigned 37-41).
If you believe the biography of Caligula as presented by Suetonius (perhaps the historian was biased), the first six months of his reign, the emperor enjoyed downright wild popularity (he lowered taxes, etc.), but then he still ruined his reputation, turning into a cruel a tyrant who killed his relatives, slept with half-sisters, and watched people torture and kill as entertainment for dinner. Caligula was in power for less than four years: he was killed when he was only 28 years old.
Nero (ruled 54-68).
The fifth Roman emperor ascended the throne at the age of 17. After five years of relatively merciful reign, he ordered his mother to be killed; he also killed his first wife and possibly his pregnant mistress. Nero showed interest in religious sects, loved to act, entertaining the audience, and, contrary to legend, did not write poetry when Rome was burning (in fact, he helped to rebuild the city again). Having lost power in a coup, he committed suicide. In the years of chaos that followed his death, four different emperors ruled.
Vespasian (ruled 69-79).
Coming from the middle strata of society (his father was a tax collector), Vespasian received the title of emperor due to his military merit. After gaining power, he stabilized the situation on the borders of the empire, replenished the state treasury, pacified Judea and the Germanic tribe of Batavians and built the Colosseum (since then called the Flavian amphitheater - in honor of the dynasty founded by Vespasian).
Diocletian (reigned 284-305).
By the time the former soldier Diocletian became emperor, Rome had already lost its former power. The empire was attacked from all sides by barbarian tribes, but Diocletian still managed to strengthen the state for several years: he divided the empire into Eastern and Western, ruled by emperors in Milan and Nicomedia (now Izmit). Diocletian is also remembered in connection with cruelty towards Christians (who, on his orders, were burned, beheaded and even simmered) and due to the fact that he was the first of the emperors to voluntarily "abdicate from power."
All good ...
After Diocletian, Christians did not have to wait long for deliverance from persecution. In 325, Constantine Flavius Valerius, son of the emperor Constance Chlorus, abandoned the polytheism traditional for Rome and declared Christianity the state religion. He also united the two halves of the empire (Eastern and Western) and moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium on the shores of the Bosphorus; in 330 this city was renamed Constantinople. Be that as it may, the former division into eastern and western parts was soon restored, and the entire next century, the Western Roman Empire withers, tormented from the north by the onset of barbarians and from the inside by social discord, a bloated bureaucratic apparatus and a lack of resources. Rival factions continued to struggle for power, and civil war became commonplace.
The drain of talent and capital from Rome (usually to the north, which contributed to the formation of a chasm between the northern and southern regions, which persists in Italy to this day) led to the fact that great city came to desolation. The army now consisted of foreign mercenaries, including barbarians. In 476, the German commander Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus and declared himself king of Italy; after that, the Western Roman Empire actually ceased to exist. Justinian, ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, briefly conquered the peninsula in 536, but the Germanic tribes led by the Lombards soon regained power.
Honoring Caesar
Modern Romans are loyal to Caesar. Every year on March 15, they lay wreaths at the foot of his statue near Via dei Fori Imperiali (Via dei Fori Imperiali) and bring flowers to the burning site of his body (now a pile of stones) in the Roman Forum.
What do we owe to the Romans?
Perhaps the most important thing that the Romans left us as a legacy is, “in addition to plumbing and sewerage, medicine, education, wine, social systems, irrigation systems, roads, drinking water supply systems and health care” (as Reg said in Terry Jones's film The Life of Brian according to Monty Python ") is Catholicism. By declaring Christianity the state religion, Constantine thereby protected the Latin language from extinction and retained the role of the center of world culture for Rome.
Punic Wars
The Punic Wars of the Republican era were fought against Carthage, a North African city that controlled trade in the Mediterranean. The name "Punic" comes from the word Poeni - Punians, which the Romans used to designate the Carthaginians - Phoenicians.
1st Punic War (264-241 BC)
Rome conquers its first overseas territory, Sicily, and becomes a maritime power.
2nd Punic War (218-201 BC)
Having lost the supremacy at sea, Carthage sends the commander Hannibal through Spain and the Alps to the gates of Rome. As a result of his defeat, control of western part The Mediterranean passes from Carthage to Rome.
3rd Punic War (149-146 BC)
Carthage is destroyed.
Important dates
X-XV centuries. BC e. - the domination of the Etruscans and Magna Graecia on the Italian peninsula.
753 BC e. - Romulus (as the legend says) founded Rome and became its first king.
510-27 biennium BC e. - the power of republican Rome in Italy and in the Mediterranean.
44 BC e. - death of "life-long dictator" Guy Julius Caesar.
27 BC e. - Augustus (née Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian) becomes the first emperor of Rome.
The beginning of the II century. - The Roman Empire reaches the peak of its power, its territory is at its maximum size.
325 AD - Emperor Constantine declares Christianity to be the official state religion.
476 - Western Roman Empire ceases to exist; German military leader Odoacer proclaims himself king of Italy.
568 - the invasion of the Lombards into Italy. Some residents began to seek salvation on the islands of the Venetian lagoon, where they founded Venice.
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