Alexander I became the Russian emperor as a result palace coup and regicide on March 11, 1801

In the early years of his reign, he believed that the country needed fundamental reforms and serious renovation. To carry out reforms, he created an unspoken committee to discuss projects of change. An unspoken committee put forward the idea of ​​limiting the autocracy, but at first it was decided to carry out reforms in the sphere of government. In 1802, the reform of the highest bodies of state power began, ministries were created, and the Committee of Ministers was established. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", according to which landowners could release their serfs free with land allotments for ransom. After the appeal of the landowners of the Baltic states, he approved a law on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estonia (1811).

In 1809, the state secretary of the emperor M. Speransky presented the tsar with a draft of radical reform. government controlled- a project to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Faced with active resistance from the nobles, Alexander I abandoned the project.

In 1816-1822. in Russia arisen secret societies of the nobility - the "Union of Salvation". Welfare Union Southern Society, Northern Society - with the aim of introducing in Russia a republican constitution or a constitutional monarchy. Towards the end of his reign, Alexander I, experiencing pressure from the nobles and fearing popular uprisings, abandoned all liberal ideas and serious reforms.

In 1812, Russia experienced the invasion of Napoleon's army, the defeat of which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris. Fundamental changes have taken place in Russia's foreign policy. Unlike Paul I, who supported Napoleon, Alexander, on the contrary, opposed France, and resumed trade and political relations with England.

In 1801, Russia and England concluded an anti-French convention "On mutual friendship," and then, in 1804, Russia joined the third anti-French coalition. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the coalition collapsed. In 1807, the forced Peace of Tilsit was signed with Napoleon. Subsequently, Russia and its allies inflicted a decisive defeat on Napoleon's army in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig in 1813.

In 1804-1813. Russia won the war with Iran, seriously expanded and strengthened its southern borders. In 1806-1812. there was a protracted Russian-Turkish war. As a result of the war with Sweden in 1808-1809. Finland, later Poland (1814) was included in Russia.

In 1814 Russia took part in the work Vienna Congress to address the issues of the post-war structure of Europe and to create the Holy Union to ensure peace in Europe, which included Russia and almost all European countries.

THE BEGINNING OF THE RING OF ALEXANDER I

And yet the first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories of his contemporaries, “The days of the Alexandrovs were a wonderful beginning” - this is how A.S. Pushkin. A short period of enlightened absolutism has begun. " Universities, lyceums and grammar schools were opened. Measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Alexander stopped distributing state peasants to the landlords. In 1803, a decree was adopted on "free farmers". According to the decree, the landowner could free his peasants by allotting them land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landowners were in no hurry to take advantage of this decree. During the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls were freed. But the ideas laid down in the decree of 1803 later formed the basis for the reform of 1861.

In the Secret Committee, a proposal was made to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. Human trafficking was carried out in Russia in overt, cynical forms. Advertisements for the sale of serfs were printed in newspapers. At the Makaryevskaya fair, they were sold along with other goods, families were torn apart. Sometimes a Russian peasant bought at a fair went to distant eastern countries, where until the end of his days he lived in the position of a foreign slave.

Alexander I wanted to suppress such shameful phenomena, but the proposal to ban the sale of peasants without land met with stubborn resistance from higher dignitaries. They believed that it undermines serfdom... Not showing persistence, the young emperor retreated. It was forbidden only to publish ads for the sale of people.

TO early XIX v. the administrative system of the state was in a state of obvious collapse. The introduced collegial form of central management clearly did not justify itself. In the collegiums, circular irresponsibility reigned, covering up bribery and embezzlement. Local authorities, taking advantage of the weakness of the central government, committed lawlessness.

At first, Alexander I hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of one-man management. In 1802, instead of the previous 12 colleges, 8 ministries were created: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. This measure has strengthened central management. But there was no decisive victory in the fight against abuse. Old vices have settled in the new ministries. Growing up, they rose to the upper levels of state power. Alexander knew the senators who took bribes. The desire to expose them fought in him with fear of diminishing the prestige of the Senate. It became obvious that only rearrangements in the bureaucratic machine could not solve the problem of creating a system of state power that would actively promote the development of the country's productive forces, and would not devour its resources. Required in principle new approach to the solution of the problem.

Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century, M., 2001

"THERE IS NO RUSSIAN POLICY"

Russian, Russian politics during the reign of Emperor Alexander I, one might say, does not exist. There is a European policy (a hundred years later they would say "pan-European"), there is a policy of the universe - the policy of the Holy Alliance. And there is the "Russian policy" of foreign cabinets, using Russia and its Tsar for their own selfish ends by the skillful work of confidants who have unlimited influence on the Tsar (such are, for example, Pozzo di Borgo and Micho de Boretour - two amazing adjutant generals who ruled Russian politics , but for his long-term adjutant general who did not learn a single Russian word).

Four phases can be traced here:

The first is the era of predominantly English influence. These are "the days of the Alexandrovs, a wonderful beginning." The young Tsar is not averse to dreaming in the circle of intimate friends about "draft Russian constitutions." England is the ideal and patroness of all liberalism, including Russian. At the head of the British government, Pitt the Younger is the great son of the great father, the mortal enemy of France in general and Bonaparte in particular. They start up the wonderful idea of ​​liberating Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon (England takes over the financial side). The result - a war with France, - the second French war ... English blood, however, not much, but Russian flows like a river at Austerlitz and Pultusk, Eylau and Friedland.

Friedland is followed by Tilsit, who opens the second era - the era of French influence. The genius of Napoleon makes a deep impression on Alexander ... The Tilsit banquet, the crosses of St. George on the chest of French grenadiers ... The Erfurt rendezvous - the Emperor of the West, the Emperor of the East ... freedom of action in Spain. Russia recklessly joins the continental system without considering all the consequences of this step.

Napoleon left for Spain. In the meantime, in the brilliant Prussian head of Stein, a plan for the liberation of Germany from the yoke of Napoleon — a plan based on Russian blood — matured ... From Berlin to Petersburg is closer than from Madrid to Petersburg. Prussian influence begins to supplant French. Stein and Pful handled the case skillfully, deftly presenting to the Russian Emperor all the greatness of the feat of "saving the tsars and their peoples." At the same time, their accomplices set Napoleon against Russia, insinuating in every possible way Russia's non-compliance with the continental treaty, touching upon Napoleon's sore spot, his hatred of his main enemy, England. Relations between the Erfurt allies finally deteriorated and a trifling pretext (skillfully inflated by the efforts of German well-wishers) was enough to involve Napoleon and Alexander in a brutal three-year war, which bled and ruined their countries - but turned out to be extremely profitable (as the instigators hoped for) for Germany in general and for Prussia in particular.

Using until the end weak sides Alexander I - a passion for posture and mysticism - foreign offices with subtle flattery forced him to believe in his messianism and through their trusted people instilled in him the idea of ​​a Holy Union, which then, in their skilful hands, turned into a Holy Union of Europe against Russia. The engraving, contemporary to those sad events, depicts "the oath of three monarchs on the tomb of Frederick the Great in eternal friendship." An oath for which four Russian generations paid a terrible price. At the Congress of Vienna, Galicia, which she had recently received, was selected from Russia, and in exchange it was given the Duchy of Warsaw, which prudently, to the greater glory of Germanism, introduced a hostile Polish element into Russia. During this fourth period, Russian politics was directed at the behest of Metternich.

WAR OF 1812 AND THE FOREIGN TRAVEL OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY

Of the 650 thousand soldiers of Napoleon's "Great Army" returned to their homeland, according to some sources, 30 thousand, according to others - 40 thousand soldiers. In essence, the Napoleonic army was not expelled, but exterminated in the vast snow-covered expanses of Russia. December 21 reported to Alexander: "The war is over for the complete destruction of the enemy." On December 25, the Tsar's manifesto was published, timed to coincide with the Nativity of Christ, announcing the end of the war. Russia turned out to be the only country in Europe capable not only of withstanding Napoleonic aggression, but also of inflicting a crushing blow on it. The secret of the victory was that it was a national liberation, truly Patriotic war. But this victory went to the people at a high price. Twelve provinces, which became the arena of hostilities, were devastated. The ancient Russian cities of Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Moscow were burned and destroyed. Direct military losses amounted to over 300 thousand soldiers and officers. Even greater losses were among the civilian population.

The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a tremendous impact on all aspects of the social, political and cultural life of the country, contributed to the growth of national consciousness, gave a powerful impetus to the development of the advanced public thought in Russia.

But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not yet mean that Russia had succeeded in putting an end to Napoleon's aggressive plans. He himself openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly put together a new army for the campaign of 1813.

Alexander I decided to preempt Napoleon and immediately postpone military operations outside the country. In pursuance of his will, Kutuzov, in an order for the army of December 21, 1812, wrote: “Without stopping among heroic deeds, we now go further. Let's cross the borders and sweat to complete the defeat of the enemy in his own fields. " And Alexander and Kutuzov with good reason counted on help from the peoples conquered by Napoleon, and their calculation was justified.

On January 1, 1813, a hundred thousandth Russian army under the command of Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered Poland. On February 16, in Kalisz, where the headquarters of Alexander I was located, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia. Prussia also undertook the obligation to supply the Russian army with food on its territory.

In early March, Russian troops occupied Berlin. By this time, Napoleon had formed an army of 300,000, of which 160,000 soldiers moved against the allied forces. A heavy loss for Russia was the death of Kutuzov on April 16, 1813 in the Silesian city of Bunzlau. Alexander I appointed P.Kh. Wittgenstein. His attempts to pursue his own strategy, different from Kutuzov's, led to a number of failures. Napoleon, inflicting defeat on the Russian-Prussian troops at Lutsen and Bautzen in late April - early May, threw them back to the Oder. Alexander I replaced Wittgenstein as commander-in-chief of the allied forces with Barclay de Tolly.

In July - August 1813 England, Sweden and Austria joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The coalition had at its disposal up to half a million soldiers, divided into three armies. The Austrian field marshal Karl Schwarzenberg was appointed commander-in-chief over all the armies, and the general leadership of the conduct of hostilities against Napoleon was carried out by the council of three monarchs - Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III.

By the beginning of August 1813, Napoleon already had 440 thousand soldiers, and on August 15 he defeated the coalition forces near Dresden. Only the victory of the Russian troops three days after the Dresden battle over the corps of Napoleon's general D. Vandam near Kulm prevented the collapse of the coalition.

The decisive battle during the 1813 campaign unfolded near Leipzig on October 4-7. It was a "battle of the peoples". More than half a million people from both sides took part in it. The battle ended in victory for the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops.

After the battle of Leipzig, the Allies slowly advanced towards the French border. In two and a half months, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from the French troops, with the exception of some fortresses, in which the French garrisons stubbornly defended themselves until the very end of the war.

On January 1, 1814, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. By this time Denmark had joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The allied forces were continuously replenished with reserves, and by the beginning of 1814 they already numbered up to 900 thousand soldiers. During the two winter months of 1814, Napoleon won 12 battles from them and drew two of them. Oscillation reignited in the coalition camp. The allies offered Napoleon peace on the terms of the return of France to the borders of 1792. Napoleon refused. Alexander I insisted on continuing the war, striving to overthrow Napoleon from the throne. At the same time, Alexander I did not want the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne: he offered to leave the young son of Napoleon on the throne under the regency of his mother, Marie-Louise. On March 10, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England signed the Chaumont Treaty, according to which they pledged not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon for peace or an armistice. The threefold superiority of the Allies in the number of troops by the end of March 1814 led to the victorious end of the campaign. Having won at the beginning of March in the battles of Laon and Arsy sur Aub, the 100-thousandth grouping of the allied forces moved to Paris, defended by a 45-thousandth garrison. On March 19, 1814, Paris capitulated. Napoleon rushed to liberate the capital, but his marshals refused to fight and forced him on March 25 to sign his abdication. Under the peace treaty signed on May 18 (30), 1814 in Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne, on which the Bourbons were restored. Louis XVIII, who returned from Russia, where he was in exile, became the king of France.

FUN AND ENTERTAINMENT OF THE ALEXANDROVSKAYA ERA

The holidays of the dynasty were national days of rest and festivities, and every year all Petersburg, seized with festive excitement, waited for July 22. A few days before the celebrations, thousands of people rushed from the city along the Peterhof road: to know in luxurious carriages, nobles, townspeople, commoners - whoever has what. The magazine of the 1820s tells us:

“Several people are crowded in the droshky and willingly endure shaking and anxiety; there, in a Chukhon wagon, a whole family is placed with large stocks of provisions of all kinds, and they all patiently swallow thick dust ... Moreover, on both sides of the road there are many pedestrians, whose hunting and the strength of their legs overpowers the lightness of a wallet; peddlers of various fruits and berries - and they hurry to Peterhof in the hope of profit and vodka. ... The pier is also a lively picture, here thousands of people are crowding and hurrying to get on the ship. "

Petersburgers spent several days in Peterhof - the parks were wide open for everyone. Tens of thousands of people spent the night right on the streets. The warm, short, light night did not seem tiresome to anyone. Nobles slept in their carriages, burghers and peasants in carts, hundreds of carriages formed real bivouacs. Everywhere could be seen chewing horses, people sleeping in the most picturesque poses. They were peaceful hordes, everything was extremely quiet and decorous, without the usual drunkenness and massacre. After the end of the holiday, the guests also quietly left for St. Petersburg, life entered its usual rut until next summer ...

In the evening, after dinner and dancing in the Grand Palace, a masquerade began in the Lower Park, where everyone was admitted. Peterhof parks by this time were transformed: alleys, fountains, cascades, as in the 18th century, were decorated with thousands of lighted bowls and differently colored lamps. Orchestras played everywhere, crowds of guests in masquerade costumes walked along the alleys of the park, making way for cavalcades of elegant horsemen and carriages of members of the royal family.

With the ascension of Alexander, St. Petersburg celebrated its first century with particular joy. In May 1803, there were continuous festivities in the capital. On the birthday of the city, viewers saw how myriad festively dressed people filled all the alleys of the Summer Garden ... on Tsaritsin's meadow there were booths, swings and other devices for all kinds of folk games. In the evening, the Summer Garden, the main buildings on the embankment, the fortress and the small Dutch house of Peter the Great ... were magnificently illuminated. On the Neva, a flotilla of small ships of the imperial squadron, dismantled with flags, was also brightly lit, and on the deck of one of these ships was visible ... the so-called "Grandfather of the Russian fleet" - a boat from which the Russian fleet began ...

Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. SPb., 2008

LEGENDS AND RUMORS ABOUT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I

What happened there in the south is shrouded in mystery. It is officially known that Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The sovereign's body was hastily embalmed and taken to St. Petersburg. [...] And since about 1836, already under Nicholas I, rumors spread throughout the country that a certain wise old man Fyodor Kuzmich Kuzmin lived among the people, a righteous, educated and very, very similar to the late emperor, although he did not at all pretend to imposture ... He walked for a long time to the holy places of Russia, and then settled in Siberia, where he died in 1864. The fact that the elder was not a commoner was clear to everyone who saw him.

But then a furious and insoluble dispute broke out: who is he? Some say that this is the once brilliant cavalry guard Fyodor Uvarov, who mysteriously disappeared from his estate. Others believe that it was the Emperor Alexander himself. Of course, among the latter there are many madmen and graphomaniacs, but there are also serious people. They pay attention to many strange facts. The cause of death of the 47-year-old emperor, in general, a healthy, mobile person, is not fully understood. There is some strange confusion in the documents about the death of the king, and this led to the suspicion that the papers were drawn up after the fact. When the body was delivered to the capital, when the coffin was opened, everyone was amazed at the cry of the deceased's mother, Empress Maria Feodorovna, at the sight of Alexander's dark, "like a Moor's" face: "This is not my son!" They talked about some mistake during the embalming. Or maybe, as supporters of the Tsar's departure assert, this mistake was not accidental? Just shortly before November 19, in front of the sovereign's eyes, a courier crashed - the carriage was carried by horses. They put him in the coffin, and Alexander himself ...

[…] In recent months, Alexander I has changed a lot. It seemed that he was possessed by some important thought that made him brooding and decisive at the same time. […] Finally, those close to him recalled how Alexander often spoke of how tired he was and dreamed of leaving the throne. The wife of Nicholas I, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, a week before their coronation on August 15, 1826, wrote in her diary:

“Probably, when I see the people, I will think about how the late Emperor Alexander, once telling us about his abdication, added:“ How I will rejoice when I see you passing me, and in the crowd I will shout to you “Hurray! "Waving his hat."

Opponents object to this: has it ever been a thing to give up such power? Yes, and all these conversations of Alexander - just a pose familiar to him, pretense. And in general, why did the king need to go to the people he did not like so much? Weren't there any other ways to live without a throne - remember the Swedish queen Christina, who left the throne and went to enjoy life in Italy. Or you could settle in the Crimea and build a palace. Yes, it was possible to go to the monastery, at last. […] Meanwhile, pilgrims wandered from one shrine to another with staffs and knapsacks across Russia. Alexander saw them many times in his trips around the country. These were not vagabonds, but people filled with faith and love for their neighbors, eternal enchanted wanderers of Russia. Their continuous movement along the endless road, their faith, visible in the eyes and requiring no proof, could prompt a way out for the tired sovereign ...

In a word, there is no clarity in this story. The best connoisseur of the time of Alexander I, the historian N.K.Schilder, the author of a fundamental work about him, a brilliant connoisseur of documents and an honest man, said:

“The whole dispute is only possible because some certainly want Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich to be one and the same person, while others absolutely do not want this. Meanwhile, there are no definite data for solving this issue in one direction or another. I can cite as much data in favor of the first opinion as in favor of the second, and no definite conclusion can be drawn. " […]

On March 12, 1801, as a result of a palace coup, Alexander I came to the throne. As a child, Alexander was taken away from his parents and brought up by his grandmother, Catherine the Great. The empress appointed the prince's tutor to the Swiss nobleman F. Laharpe, who had a tremendous influence on the formation of the liberal views of the future autocrat. Trying to adapt to the confrontation between Catherine II and his father, Alexander Pavlovich was forced to maneuver between two opposing groups, which influenced the formation of such qualities of his character as cunning, insight, caution and duplicity. The fact that Alexander I knew about the impending conspiracy against Emperor Paul I, but due to his weakness and thirst for power, could not prevent the murder of his father, contributed to the development of suspicion and distrust of others in him.

After becoming emperor, Alexander I fully showed himself as a cautious, flexible and far-sighted political figure, extremely prudent in his reformatory activities.

The first steps of the new emperor justified the hopes of the Russian nobility and indicated a break with the policy of Emperor Paul and a return to transformative activities Catherine the Great. Alexander I returned the disgraced nobles, the restrictions on trade with England were lifted, the ban on the import of books from abroad was lifted. Also, the emperor confirmed the privileges to nobles and cities indicated in Catherine's Letters of Charity.

At the same time, Alexander I, in order to develop liberal reforms of the state structure, created an Unspoken Committee (May 1801 - November 1803), which included: P. Stroganov, A. Czartoryskiy, V. Kochubei and N. Novosiltsev. The secret committee was not official government agency, but was an advisory body under the sovereign. The main issues discussed at the meetings of the Secret Committee were the reforms of the state apparatus towards the limitation of autocracy, the peasant question and the education system.

The result of the activities of the Mill's Secret Committee is the reform of the highest state bodies. On September 8, 1802, the Manifesto was issued, according to which ministries were established instead of collegia: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.

In resolving the peasant question, discussed in the Secret Committee, Alexander I was extremely careful. The emperor considered serfdom a source of social tension, but was convinced that society was not ready for radical reforms. On February 20, 1803, a decree on "free cultivators" was issued, which provided the landowners with the opportunity to free the peasants with land for ransom. The decree was of a recommendatory nature and was not very popular among the landowners: during the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of serfs passed into the category of “free farmers”.

From the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Secret Committee began to decline, and its place was taken by the Committee of Ministers. To continue the transformations, Alexander I needed new people loyal to him personally. A new round of reforms was associated with the name of M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan of state reforms entitled "Introduction to the Code state laws". According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of the State Duma, judicial functions in the hands of the Senate, executive functions in the ministries). According to M. Speransky's plan, the entire population of Russia was divided into three classes: the nobility, the "middle state" (merchants, bourgeois, state peasants) and the "working people" (serfs, artisans, servants). All estates received civil rights, and the nobles - political rights.

The emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations concerned exclusively the central system of government: in 1810 the State Council was established as a legislative body under the emperor.

In the years 1810-1811. the reform of the system of ministerial administration, which had begun in 1803, was completed. According to the General Institution of Ministries (1811), eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, naval, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the General Directorate post offices, the State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict autocracy was introduced. Ministers, appointed by the tsar and accountable only to him, formed the Committee of Ministers, the status of which as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.

In early 1811, the State Council refused to approve the new reform project. The failure of Speransky's entire plan became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the abolition of serfdom, the growing opposition of the conservatives acquired such a threatening character that Alexander I was forced to stop the reforms. M. Speransky was removed and then exiled.

Thus, the reforms at the beginning of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were very limited, but they sufficiently strengthened his position as an autocratic monarch, being the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility.

The second period of the emperor's reign is traditionally called "conservative" in historical literature, despite the fact that at this time such liberal transformations as the introduction of the Polish constitution, the granting of autonomy to Bessarabia, and the relief of the situation of the peasants in the Baltic States were carried out.

External events 1812-1815 pushed the internal political problems of Russia into the background. After the end of the war, the issue of constitutional reforms and serfdom was again in the center of attention of society and the emperor himself. A draft Constitution was developed for the Polish lands that were part of Russia. This constitution became a kind of tentative step, an experiment that was supposed to precede the introduction of the constitution in Russia.

In November 1815. the Polish constitution was approved. It retained the monarchy, but provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament (Diet). The government was supposed to be responsible before the Sejm, freedom of the press, equality of all estates before the law, and personal inviolability were also guaranteed. And at the opening of the Diet in 1818, in the speech of Alexander I, in fact, a promise was made to introduce a constitution in Russia. In March 1818, the emperor instructed a group of his advisers, headed by N. Novosiltsev, to develop a constitution for Russia. The constitution was developed, but it was never implemented - Alexander I did not dare to go into direct confrontation with the opposition.

In April 1818, Alexander I granted autonomous control of Bessarabia. According to the "Charter of education of the Bessarabian region" the highest legislative and executive power was transferred to the Supreme Council, part of which was elected from the nobility. Back in 1804, the "Regulations on the Livonian Peasants" were approved, according to which the sale of serfs without land, a fixed obligation that exempted the peasants from conscription was prohibited. In May 1816, the emperor signed the "Statute on Estonian peasants", according to which they received personal freedom, but all the land remained the property of the landowners. Peasants could rent land and later buy it out. In 1817, the Regulations were extended to Courland and Livonia (1819).

However, due to the oppositional moods of the nobility, who did not want to part with their privileges, the reformist intentions of Alexander I were replaced by an openly reactionary course. In 1820, the Council of State rejected the Tsar's proposed bill banning the sale of serfs without land. In addition, the wave of European revolutions of 1820-1821. and uprisings in the army convinced him of the untimely transformation. V last years of his reign, Alexander I was little engaged in internal affairs, focusing on the problems of the Holy Alliance, which became a stronghold of European monarchs against liberation and national movements... It was at this time that the influence of A. Arakcheev increased, after whom the regime established in the country was called "Arakcheevshchina" (1815-1825). Its most striking manifestation was the creation in 1820 of the military police, the strengthening of censorship, the prohibition in 1822 of the activities of secret societies and Masonic lodges in Russia, the restoration in 1822 of the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia. The creation of "military settlements" was indicative, in which, under the most severe regulation and control, the peasants carried out military service simultaneously with agricultural duty.

Thus, the liberal reform projects on the abolition of serfdom and granting Russia a constitution were not implemented due to the reluctance to reform the overwhelming mass of the nobility. Without support, the reforms could not be carried out. Fearing a new palace coup, Alexander I could not go against the first estate.

In November 1825, the emperor died unexpectedly in Taganrog (according to another version, he secretly went to a monastery). The second son of Paul I, brother of Alexander I - Constantine, in 1822, refused to rule. The Manifesto, drawn up in 1823, in which the third son of Paul, Nicholas, was appointed successor, was kept secret from the heir. As a result, in 1825 a situation of interregnum arose.

Emperor Alexander I was the grandson of Catherine the Great from her only son Pavel Petrovich and the German princess Sophia of Württemberg, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. He was born in St. Petersburg on December 25, 1777. Named after Alexander Nevsky, the newborn Tsarevich was immediately taken away from his parents and brought up under the supervision of a royal grandmother, which greatly influenced Political Views future autocrat.

Childhood and adolescence

Alexander's entire childhood passed under the control of the reigning grandmother, he almost did not communicate with his parents, however, despite this, he, like Father Pavel, loved and was well versed in military affairs. The tsarevich served in active service in Gatchina, at the age of 19 he was promoted to colonel.

The Tsarevich had insight, quickly grasped new knowledge and learned with pleasure. It was in him, and not in her son Paul, that Catherine the Great saw the future Russian emperor, but she could not put him on the throne, bypassing her father.

At the age of 20, he became Governor-General of St. Petersburg and the chief of the Semyonovsky Guards Regiment. A year later, he begins to sit in the Senate.

Alexander was critical of the policies pursued by his father, Emperor Paul, so he became involved in a conspiracy to remove the emperor from the throne and the accession of Alexander. However, the condition of the Tsarevich was the preservation of the life of his father, therefore the violent death of the latter brought the Tsarevich a feeling of guilt for life.

Married life

The personal life of Alexander I was very eventful. The crown prince's marriage began early - at the age of 16 he was married to the fourteen-year-old princess of Baden, Louise Maria Augusta, who changed her name in Orthodoxy, becoming Elizaveta Alekseevna. The newlyweds were very suitable for each other, for which among the courtiers they received the nicknames Cupid and Psyche. In the first years of marriage, the relationship between the spouses was very tender and touching, the Grand Duchess was very loved and respected at court by everyone except her mother-in-law Maria Feodorovna. However, the warm relations in the family soon changed to cool ones - the newlyweds had too different characters, besides, Alexander Pavlovich often cheated on his wife.

The wife of Alexander I was distinguished by modesty, did not like luxury, was engaged in charity work, balls and social events, she preferred walking and reading books.

Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna

For almost six years, the marriage of the Grand Duke did not bear fruit, and only in 1799 did Alexander I have children. The Grand Duchess gave birth to a daughter, Maria Alexandrovna. The birth of a baby led to an intra-family scandal in imperial family... Alexander's mother hinted that the child was not born from the Tsarevich, but from Prince Czartoryski, in an affair with whom she suspected her daughter-in-law. In addition, the girl was born a brunette, and both parents were blond. Emperor Paul also hinted at betrayal of his daughter-in-law. Tsarevich Alexander himself recognized his daughter and never spoke about the possible betrayal of his wife. The happiness of fatherhood was short-lived, the Grand Duchess Maria lived for a little over a year and died in 1800. The death of her daughter briefly reconciled and brought the spouses closer.

Grand Duchess Elizabeth Alexandrovna

Numerous novels more and more alienated the crowned spouses, Alexander, without hiding, cohabited with Maria Naryshkina, and Empress Elizabeth began an affair with Alexy Okhotnikov in 1803. In 1806, the wife of Alexander I gave birth to a daughter, Grand Duchess Elizabeth, despite the fact that the spouses had not lived together for several years, the emperor recognized the daughter as his, which made the girl the first in line to the Russian throne. The children of Alexander I did not please him for long. The second daughter died at the age of 18 months. After the death of Princess Elizabeth, the relationship of the married couple became even cooler.

Love relationship with Maria Naryshkina

Married life with in many ways did not work out because of Alexander's fifteen-year relationship with the daughter of the Polish aristocrat M. Naryshkina, before Chetvertinskaya's marriage. Alexander did not hide this connection, his family and all the courtiers knew about it, moreover, Maria Naryshkina herself at every opportunity tried to prick the emperor's wife, hinting at an affair with Alexander. Over the years of love affair, Alexander was credited with the paternity of five of Naryshkina's six children:

• Elizaveta Dmitrievna, born in 1803,
• Elizaveta Dmitrievna, born in 1804,
• Sofia Dmitrievna, born in 1808,
• Zinaida Dmitrievna, born in 1810,
• Emmanuil Dmitrievich, born in 1813.

In 1813, the emperor parted with Naryshkina, as he suspected her in connection with another man. The emperor suspected that Emmanuel Naryshkin was not his son. After parting, the former lovers remained on friendly terms. Of all the children of Mary and Alexander I, Sofia Naryshkina lived the longest. She died at 16, on the eve of her wedding.

Illegitimate children of Alexander I

In addition to children from Maria Naryshkina, Emperor Alexander had other favorites.

• Nikolai Lukash, born in 1796 from Sophia Meshcherskaya;
• Maria, was born in 1819 from Maria Turkestanova;
• Maria Alexandrovna Paris (1814), mother Margarita Josephine Weimer;
• Alexandrova Wilhelmina Alexandrina Paulina, born in 1816, mother unknown;
• (1818), mother Elena Rautenstrauch;
• Nikolay Isakov (1821), mother - Maria Karacharova.

The paternity of the last four children among researchers of the emperor's biography remains controversial. Some historians even doubt whether Alexander I had children.

Domestic policy 1801-1815

Having ascended the throne in March 1801, Alexander I Pavlovich proclaimed that he would continue the policy of his grandmother Catherine the Great. In addition to the title of the Russian emperor, Alexander was titled Czar of Poland from 1815, Grand Duke of Finland from 1801, and Protector of the Order of Malta from 1801.

Alexander I (from 1801 to 1825) began his reign with the development of radical reforms. The Emperor abolished the Secret Expedition, prohibited the use of torture against prisoners, allowed books to be imported from abroad and opened private printing houses in the country.

Alexander took the first step towards the abolition of serfdom by issuing a decree "On free farmers" and introduced a ban on the sale of peasants without land, but these measures did not make any special changes.

Reforms in the education system

Alexander's reforms in the education system were more fruitful. A clear gradation of educational institutions was introduced according to the level educational programs, so there were district and parish schools, provincial gymnasiums and colleges, universities. During 1804-1810. Kazan, Kharkov universities were opened, in St. Petersburg was opened pedagogical institute, a privileged Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, the Academy of Sciences was restored in the capital.

From the first days of his reign, the emperor surrounded himself with young educated people with progressive views. One of these was the lawyer Speransky, it was under his leadership that the Peter's collegia in the Ministry were reformed. Speransky also began developing a project for the reorganization of the empire, which provided for the separation of powers and the creation of an elected representative body. Thus, the monarchy would be transformed into a constitutional one, but the reform met with opposition from the political and aristocratic leaders, so it was not carried out.

Reforms of 1815-1825

During the reign of Alexander I, the history of Russia changed dramatically. The emperor was active in domestic policy at the beginning of their reign, but after 1815 they began to decline. In addition, each of his reforms met with fierce resistance from the Russian nobility. Since that time, there have been no significant transformations in the Russian Empire. In 1821-1822, a secret police was established in the army, secret organizations and Masonic lodges were banned.

The exceptions were the western provinces of the empire. In 1815, Alexander I granted the Polish kingdom a constitution, according to which Poland became a hereditary monarchy within Russia. In Poland, the bicameral Sejm was preserved, which, together with the king, was the legislative body. The constitution was liberal in nature and in many ways resembled the French Charter and the Constitution of England. Also in Finland, the implementation of the constitutional law of 1772 was guaranteed, and the peasants of the Baltic were freed from serfdom.

Military reform

After the victory over Napoleon, Alexander saw that the country needed to military reform therefore, since 1815, Minister of War Arakcheev was instructed to develop its project. It implied the creation of military settlements as a new military-agricultural class, which would complete the army on a permanent basis. The first such settlements were introduced in the Kherson and Novgorod provinces.

Foreign policy

The reign of Alexander I left its mark on foreign policy as well. In the first year of his reign, he concluded peace treaties with England and France, and in 1805-1807 became a member of the French emperor Napoleon. The defeat at Austerlitz aggravated the position of Russia, which led to the signing of the Peace of Tilsit with Napoleon in June 1807, which implied the creation of a defensive alliance between France and Russia.

More successful was the Russian-Turkish confrontation in 1806-1812, which ended with the signing of the Brest Peace Treaty, according to which Bessarabia ceded to Russia.

The war with Sweden in 1808-1809 ended with the victory of Russia, according to a peace treaty, the empire received Finland and the Aland Islands.

Also, during the reign of Alexander during the Russian-Persian war, Azerbaijan, Imereti, Guria, Mengrelia and Abkhazia were annexed to the empire. The empire received the right to have its own Caspian fleet. Earlier, in 1801, Georgia became part of Russia, and in 1815 - the Duchy of Warsaw.

but greatest victory Alexander is a victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, which is why it was he who headed the years 1813-1814. In March 1814, the Emperor of Russia entered Paris at the head of the coalition armies, he also became one of the leaders of the Vienna Congress to establish a new order in Europe. The popularity of the Russian emperor was colossal; in 1819 he became the godfather of the future Queen of England Victoria.

Death of the emperor

According to the official version, Emperor Alexander I Romanov died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog from complications of brain inflammation. Such an early death of the emperor caused a lot of rumors and legends.

In 1825, the health of the emperor's wife sharply deteriorated, the doctors advised the southern climate, it was decided to go to Taganrog, the emperor decided to accompany his wife, relations with whom had become very warm in recent years.

While in the south, the emperor visited Novocherkassk and the Crimea, on the way he caught a bad cold and died. Alexander was in good health and never got sick, so the death of the 48-year-old emperor became suspicious for many, and many considered his unexpected desire to accompany the empress on a trip suspicious too. In addition, the body of the king was not shown to the people before the burial, the farewell took place with a closed coffin. Even more rumors were generated by the imminent death of the emperor's wife - Elizabeth died six months later.

Emperor - old man

In the years 1830-1840. the deceased tsar began to be identified with a certain old man Fyodor Kuzmich, who in his features resembled the emperor, besides, he possessed excellent manners that were not characteristic of a simple vagabond. There were rumors among the population that the emperor's double was buried, and the tsar himself lived under the name of the elder until 1864, while the empress Elizaveta Alekseevna herself was also identified with the hermit Vera the Silent.

The question of whether Elder Fyodor Kuzmich and Alexander are one person has not yet been clarified, only genetic examination can put all the "i" s.

Two films about Alexander I from Leonid Parfyonov's project "Russian Empire".

Alexander I, part 1. Accession to the throne - "the days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning." Russia's participation in anti-Napoleonic coalitions; the battle of Austerlitz; Peace of Tilsit. War with Sweden, the annexation of Finland to Russia. Speransky is "the sun of the Russian bureaucracy." Free port regime in Odessa. The heyday of the Russian-American Company - Russian settlements in Alaska and California.

Alexander I, part 2. Patriotic War of 1812. Battle of Borodino, surrender of Moscow, first partisans, crossing the Berezina, expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. Foreign campaign of the Russian army, the defeat of Napoleon, the capture of Paris and the occupation of France. Sacred Union of Monarchs. Arakcheev's activities and military settlements. Kingdom of Poland. The beginning of the Caucasian War - the longest in the history of the empire. The village of Yarag is the capital of Gazavat. New Empire style - Russian Empire style. The crisis of the reign, illness and death of Alexander I; the legend of the elder Fyodor Kuzmich.

Curriculum Vitae

At the beginning of his reign, Alexander I carried out moderately liberal reforms developed by the Secret Committee and M.M.Speransky. In foreign policy, he maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-07 he participated in the anti-French coalitions. In 1807-12 he temporarily became close to France. He fought successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09). Under Alexander I, the territories of Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), Azerbaijan (1813), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After the Patriotic War of 1812, he headed the anti-French coalition of European powers in 1813-14. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna 1814-15 and organizers of the Holy Alliance.

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Since the relationship between the father and the grandmother did not work out, the empress took the grandson from his parents. Catherine II immediately inflamed with great love for her grandson and decided what she would make an ideal emperor out of the newborn.

Alexander was raised by the Swiss Laharpe, who was considered by many to be a staunch republican. The prince received a good education in the Western style.

Alexander believed in the possibility of creating an ideal, humane society, he sympathized French revolution, felt sorry for the Poles deprived of statehood, and was skeptical of the Russian autocracy. Time, however, dispelled his belief in such ideals ...

Alexander I became the emperor of Russia after the death of Paul I, as a result of a palace coup. The events that took place on the night of March 11-12, 1801, affected the life of Alexander Pavlovich. He was very worried about the death of his father, and guilt haunted him all his life.

Domestic policy of Alexander I

The emperor saw the mistakes made by his father during his reign. The main reason for the conspiracy against Paul I is the abolition of the privileges of the nobility, which were introduced by Catherine II. The first thing he did was to restore these rights.

Domestic policy had a strictly liberal connotation. He announced an amnesty for people who were repressed during his father's reign, allowed them to travel abroad freely, reduced censorship and returned them to the foreign press.

He carried out a large-scale reform of public administration in Russia. In 1801, the Indispensable Council was created - a body that had the right to discuss and revoke the emperor's decrees. The indispensable council had the status of a legislative body.

Instead of collegia, ministries were created, at the head of which responsible persons were put. This is how the cabinet of ministers was formed, which became the most important administrative body of the Russian Empire. During the reign of Alexander I, beginnings played an important role. He was a talented man with great ideas in his head.

Alexander I distributed all kinds of privileges to the nobility, but the emperor understood the seriousness of the peasant question. Many titanic efforts were made to alleviate the situation of the Russian peasantry.

In 1801, a decree was adopted, according to which merchants and bourgeoisie could buy free land and organize economic activities on them, using hired labor. This decree destroyed the monopoly of the nobility on land ownership.

In 1803, a decree was issued, which went down in history as - "Decree on free farmers". Its essence was that now, the landowner could make the serf free for a ransom. But such a deal is only possible with the consent of both parties.

Free peasants had the right to property. Throughout the reign of Alexander I, there was continuous work aimed at solving the most important political issue within the peasantry. Various projects were developed to grant freedom to the peasantry, but they remained only on paper.

There was also a reform of education. The Russian Emperor understood that the country needed new highly qualified personnel. Now educational establishments were divided into four successive steps.

The territory of the Empire was divided into educational districts, headed by local universities. The university provided staff and curricula local schools and gymnasiums. 5 new universities, many gymnasiums and colleges were opened in Russia.

Foreign policy of Alexander I

His foreign policy first of all, it is “recognizable” from the Napoleonic wars. Russia fought with France, most reign of Alexander Pavlovich. In 1805, a major battle between the Russian and French armies took place. The Russian army was defeated.

Peace was signed in 1806, but Alexander I refused to ratify the treaty. In 1807, Russian troops were defeated at Fridland, after which the emperor had to conclude the Peace of Tilsit.

Napoleon sincerely considered the Russian Empire to be his only ally in Europe. Alexander I and Bonaparte seriously discussed the possibility of joint military action against India and Turkey.

France recognized the rights of the Russian Empire to Finland, and Russia, the rights of France to Spain. But for a number of reasons, Russia and France could not be allies. The interests of the countries collided in the Balkans.

Also, the stumbling block between the two powers was the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, which prevented Russia from conducting profitable trade. In 1810, Napoleon asked for the hand of Alexander Pavlovich's sister, Anna, but was refused.

In 1812 began Patriotic War... After the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia, the foreign campaigns of the Russian army began. During events Napoleonic Wars, a lot of worthy people inscribed their names in gold letters in the history of Russia:, Davydov, ...

Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The emperor passed away from typhoid fever... The unexpected departure of the emperor from life, gave rise to many rumors. There was a legend among the people that, instead of Alexander I, a completely different person was buried, and the emperor himself began to wander around the country and, having reached Siberia, settled in this area, leading the lifestyle of an old hermit.

Summing up, we can say that the reign of Alexander I can be characterized in positive terms. He was one of the first to talk about the importance of limiting autocratic power, the introduction of a Duma and a constitution. Under him, voices calling for the abolition of serfdom began to sound louder, and a great deal of work was done in this regard.

During the reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825), Russia was able to successfully defend itself against an external enemy that conquered all of Europe. became the personification of the unity of the Russian people, in the face of external danger. Successful defense the borders of the Russian Empire is undoubtedly a great dignity of Alexander I.