In the history of chemistry, vitalism played a leading role, distinguishing between organic and inorganic substances, following the Aristotelian distinction between the mineral kingdom and the animal and plant kingdoms. The main premise of these vitalistic views was the possession of organic substances, as opposed to inorganic, "life force". From this it followed and was predicted that organic compounds cannot be synthesized from inorganic. However, chemistry developed, and in 1828 Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea from inorganic components. Wöhler wrote a letter to Berzelius saying that he had witnessed "a great tragedy in science - the murder of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact." The "beautiful hypothesis" was vitalism; "ugly fact" - a test tube with urea crystals.

According to the generally accepted view of the progress of chemical science, the discoveries that followed rejected the "vital force", as all large quantity It became possible to explain life processes by chemical or physical phenomena. However, it is not believed that vitalism died at the very moment when Wöhler synthesized urea. The "Wöhler Myth," as it was called by the historian of science Peter J. Ramberg, originated in a popular science book on the history of chemistry published in 1931, which "defying all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a knight who attempted to an attempt to synthesize a natural substance that would refute vitalism and pull back the veil of ignorance, until "in one day a miracle happened."

The main anti-mechanical thesis in chemistry is the teleological nature of processes that can no longer be explained mechanically at the cell level.

Some of the greatest minds of the day continued to explore vitalism. Louis Pasteur, shortly after his famous refutation of the theory of spontaneous generation, performed several experiments which he felt supported the theory of vitality. According to Bechtel, Pasteur “applied fermentation to a more general program describing particular reactions that only take place in living organisms. They do not apply to vital phenomena.” In 1858, Pasteur showed that fermentation occurs only in the presence of living cells and in the absence of oxygen. This led him to describe fermentation as "life without air". He did not find support for the claims of Berzelius, Liebig, Traube and others that fermentation occurs under the action of chemical agents or catalysts inside cells, and concluded that fermentation is a "vital action".

The original systemic biochemical concept of life was developed in 1871-1911. Edmund Montgomery.

Literature

• About the soul. Aristotle Rem. This book is presented not as respect for the classics, but as the most necessary text for understanding the essence.
• O duzy. Aristoteles Prelozyl, wstepem i skrowidzem opatrzyl Pawel Siwek. // PWN, Warszawa 1972
• Vitalism. Its history and system. G. Driesch 1915 // reprint 2007 URSS
• Stuart R. Hameroff Ultimate Computing. Biomolecular Consciousness and NanoTechnology.
• New science of life. R. Sheldrake. // "Ripol classic" М2005
• Guenter Albrecht-Buehler Cell Intelligence.
• Valentin Tomberg. Major Arcana Tarot. - St. Petersburg. "Aletheia", 2000 Tomberg Dictionary

1) Vitalism - (lat. vitalis - living, vital) - (1) - a trend in biology that upholds the presence of representatives of the living world of special non-material factors that determine the specificity of this world and its qualitative difference from the non-living one. V. originates from ancient animism. Elements of V. were contained in the philosophical doctrine of Plato about the immortal soul, in the thought of Aristotle about the presence of special internal purposeful causes in living organisms. The most complete system of embryonic development was described by the German embryologist G. Driesch (late 19th - early 20th centuries). The methodological basis of his V. was the "machine theory of life." From the standpoint of the latter, it was difficult to explain the revealed facts of the regulation of developmental processes, the ability of individual cells at the earliest stages of division of a fertilized egg to develop into a full-fledged organism, regeneration phenomena, etc. Mechanistic ideas about the nature of cell divisions and the relationship of cells in a multicellular organism did not allow explaining the essence of regeneration processes and the regulatory nature of developmental processes. These processes constituted, according to Driesch, the essence of the phenomena of life. But this essence is determined, according to Driesch, the so-called. "entelechy", a factor "embracing the goal". This factor, being non-material and acting outside of space and time, creates the spatial organization of the living, determines its expediency. The existence of non-material and unknowable factors in the living, which determine its qualitative difference from the non-living, was also recognized by other representatives of V. (I. Reinke, R. Francais, and others). V. is characterized by the absolutization of the qualitative originality of living things, the denial of the role of chemical and physical laws in it, and a negative attitude towards those biological theories and concepts that provide a materialistic explanation for the phenomena of life. For example, Driesch actively opposed Darwin's evolutionary theory, G. Mendel's concept of heredity. (2) - the concept of modern philosophy, overcoming the traditional set of ideas about death. The project of the "new" V. was realized in the works of the French thinker of the second half of the 20th century. Bish, who defined life as "a set of functions that resist death" and ceased to interpret death as an "indivisible moment". The three "important innovations" of Bish in understanding the problems of V. it is legitimate to believe the following: "the postulation of death as an entity, life of equal volume; the transformation of death into a global result of a set of partial deaths; and most importantly, the adoption of "violent death" instead of "natural death" as a model ( Deleuze). - Wed. with Foucault’s thought: “Bishat relativized the idea of ​​death, throwing it off the pedestal of that absolute on which it appeared as an indivisible, decisive and irrevocable event. He “evaporated” it, distributing it through life in the form of partial deaths, deaths in parts, gradual and such slow, that "on the other side" they end in death itself. However, from this fact he formed one of the fundamental structures of medical thought and medical perception; what life is opposed to and what it is exposed to; appears as a living resistance, and, consequently, life; that in relation to which it is found analytically, and, therefore, is genuine ... Against the background of such mortalism, vitalism arises.

2) Vitalism- (lat. vitalis - vital) - anti-scientific. a direction in biology that explains the essence of life by the action of supernatural, non-material and unknowable factors allegedly present in living things (“life, impulse”, “creative force”, etc.). V. merges with religion and idealism. The initial principle of V. is the absolutization of qualities, the specifics of organic. nature, its opposition to inorganic, the denial of the possibility of the emergence of life from inanimate matter. Modern V., relying on the latest methodology of idealism, falsifies the complex problems of biology (the origin of the living, its ability to self-regulate, self-organize). V.'s concepts are widely used modern. theology to promote fideism.

3) Vitalism- (from lat. vita - life) - the doctrine of the existence of a "life principle", a special active primary source of the life process in inanimate matter. The essence of this principle is not clearly fixed among the "vitalists": in some interpretations, "souls" were considered the vital principles of things, in others it is a special energy associated with something supernatural, and for a number of thinkers of the Renaissance, the highest birthing force of the world: "This is the vital and a magical force that continuously creates, creates and throws its children into the world.Nature can do anything, because it is everything, and everything that happens and is created in the world is nature and a product of nature.nature is comparable to a person, with that key beating from within which evokes thoughts, desires, images in our soul "(A. Koyre). Vitalism is often combined with panpsychism and animism and contrasts the vital with the spiritual. It spread in the intellectual circles of Europe during the Renaissance, then died out with the rise of scientific culture, but revived again in the twentieth century, when scientific rationality began to lose ground. Does not have an understanding of the specifics of personal life.

4) Vitalism- (from lat. vita - life) - the doctrine of the qualitative difference between life and inanimate nature, the presence of special factors and forces on which the properties of living structures depend. V. opposes the explanation of life processes from the standpoint of their mechanistic and physico-chemical understanding. In the XX century. V.'s ideas became widespread in the 1920s, when, in the atmosphere of the post-war spiritual crisis, the values ​​of rationalism, mechanism, and technological progress were called into question. The main representatives of V. were Driesch, I. Reinke, Ikskul. The basic principles they uphold are: teleological causality and integrity in explaining the living; the presence of specific non-material, vital factors (entelechy, dominant) that control physical and chemical processes in a living organism and determine the direction of its development. According to Ixkül, each organism is like a monad with its own experience and the world around it. V. influenced some representatives of philosophical anthropology. The subsequent course of development of biological knowledge pushed him into the field of natural philosophy.

5) Vitalism- a doctrine explaining the physico-chemical phenomena in the body on the basis of the vital principle, for example, "vital force", "vital impulse". Vitalism opposes both materialism, which denies the specifics of life and reduces it to very complex physical phenomena (for example, Marxism and, in the time of Descartes, mechanism), and spiritualism, which explains life by the spiritual presence in us: the soul or God (for example, Leibniz). Vitalism is both a theory of reality and a denial of mechanism. This is a specific realism, which considers matter to be a special case or a boundary moment of life: its either a degraded or an emerging form.

6) Vitalism- (lat. vitalis - living, vital) - a trend in biology that defends the presence of representatives of the living world of special non-material factors that determine the specificity of this world and its qualitative difference from the inanimate. V. originates from ancient animism. Elements of V. were contained in the philosophical doctrine of Plato about the immortal soul, in the thought of Aristotle about the presence of special internal purposeful causes in living organisms. The most complete system of embryonic development was described by the German embryologist G. Driesch (late 19th - early 20th centuries). The methodological basis of his V. was the "machine theory of life." From the standpoint of the latter, it was difficult to explain the revealed facts of the regulation of developmental processes, the ability of individual cells at the earliest stages of division of a fertilized egg to develop into a full-fledged organism, regeneration phenomena, etc. Mechanistic ideas about the nature of cell divisions and the relationship of cells in a multicellular organism did not allow explaining the essence of regeneration processes and the regulatory nature of developmental processes. These processes constituted, according to Driesch, the essence of the phenomena of life. But this essence is determined, according to Driesch, the so-called. "entelechy", the factor "containing the goal". This factor, being non-material and acting outside of space and time, creates the spatial organization of the living, determines its expediency. The existence of non-material and unknowable factors in the living, which determine its qualitative difference from the non-living, was also recognized by other representatives of V. (I. Reinke, R. Francais, and others). V. is characterized by the absolutization of the qualitative originality of living things, the denial of the role of chemical and physical laws in it, and a negative attitude towards those biological theories and concepts that provide a materialistic explanation for the phenomena of life. For example, Driesch actively opposed Darwin's evolutionary theory, G. Mendel's concept of heredity. P.S. Karako

7) Vitalism- (lat. "vita", "life") - the doctrine of the qualitative irreducibility of life processes to the laws of the inorganic world, the presence in living bodies of special factors that are absent in inanimate ones.

8) Vitalism- (from lat. vitalis - vital) - a view according to which organisms have a special vitality (lat. vis vitalis), on which all manifestations of life must depend. Vitalism appeared for the first time in France and was formulated in its sharpest form by Louis Dumas (1765-1813). Vitalism rejected the explanation of life processes from the point of view of an exclusively mechanical and chemical understanding of them, but as a result of the successes of biochemistry and physical chemistry, it was pushed more and more into an area that was not yet accessible to physical and chemical analysis. In the 20th century Reinke, Driesch ("Philosophie des Organischen", 1928) and others created critical neovitalism. This theory, based on experiments on the mechanics of development, considers the "prospective potency of the elements of the germ" (Driesch; see Equipotentiality) and the role of a non-physical and non-spatial expediently acting factor, called (as in Aristotle) ​​entelechy. Neovitalism denies the possibility of a causal-mechanical explanation of life processes, attributing to them planning, purposefulness and internal, own regularity. Vitalism in this sense is represented by Paladi, E. Becher, A. Wenzl, Konrad-Martius, Ikskyul and others; the opponent of vitalism among others is Bertalanffy. See All life, Species soul, Virus, Virtuality hypothesis.

Vitalism

(lat. vitalis - living, vital) - (1) - a trend in biology that upholds the presence of representatives of the living world of special non-material factors that determine the specificity of this world and its qualitative difference from the inanimate. V. originates from ancient animism. Elements of V. were contained in the philosophical doctrine of Plato about the immortal soul, in the thought of Aristotle about the presence of special internal purposeful causes in living organisms. The most complete system of embryonic development was described by the German embryologist G. Driesch (late 19th - early 20th centuries). The methodological basis of his V. was the "machine theory of life." From the standpoint of the latter, it was difficult to explain the revealed facts of the regulation of developmental processes, the ability of individual cells at the earliest stages of division of a fertilized egg to develop into a full-fledged organism, regeneration phenomena, etc. Mechanistic ideas about the nature of cell divisions and the relationship of cells in a multicellular organism did not allow explaining the essence of regeneration processes and the regulatory nature of developmental processes. These processes constituted, according to Driesch, the essence of the phenomena of life. But this essence is determined, according to Driesch, the so-called. "entelechy", a factor "embracing the goal". This factor, being non-material and acting outside of space and time, creates the spatial organization of the living, determines its expediency. The existence of non-material and unknowable factors in the living, which determine its qualitative difference from the non-living, was also recognized by other representatives of V. (I. Reinke, R. Francais, and others). V. is characterized by the absolutization of the qualitative originality of living things, the denial of the role of chemical and physical laws in it, and a negative attitude towards those biological theories and concepts that provide a materialistic explanation for the phenomena of life. For example, Driesch actively opposed Darwin's evolutionary theory, G. Mendel's concept of heredity. (2) - the concept of modern philosophy, overcoming the traditional set of ideas about death. The project of the "new" V. was realized in the works of the French thinker of the second half of the 20th century. Bish, who defined life as "a set of functions that resist death" and ceased to interpret death as an "indivisible moment". The three "important innovations" of Bish in understanding the problems of V. it is legitimate to believe the following: "the postulation of death as an entity, life of equal volume; the transformation of death into a global result of a set of partial deaths; and most importantly, the adoption of "violent death" instead of "natural death" as a model ( Deleuze). - Wed. with Foucault’s thought: “Bishat relativized the idea of ​​death, throwing it off the pedestal of that absolute on which it appeared as an indivisible, decisive and irrevocable event. He “evaporated” it, distributing it through life in the form of partial deaths, deaths in parts, gradual and such slow, that "on the other side" they end in death itself. However, from this fact he formed one of the fundamental structures of medical thought and medical perception; what life is opposed to and what it is exposed to; appears as a living resistance, and, consequently, life; that in relation to which it is found analytically, and, therefore, is genuine ... Against the background of such mortalism, vitalism arises.

(lat. vitalis - vital) - anti-scientific. a direction in biology that explains the essence of life by the action of supernatural, non-material and unknowable factors allegedly present in living things (“life, impulse”, “creative force”, etc.). V. merges with religion and idealism. The initial principle of V. is the absolutization of qualities, the specifics of organic. nature, its opposition to inorganic, the denial of the possibility of the emergence of life from inanimate matter. Modern V., relying on the latest methodology of idealism, falsifies the complex problems of biology (the origin of the living, its ability to self-regulate, self-organize). V.'s concepts are widely used modern. theology to promote fideism.

(from lat. vita - life) - the doctrine of the existence of a "life principle", a special active primary source of the life process in inanimate matter. The essence of this principle is not clearly fixed among the "vitalists": in some interpretations, "souls" were considered the vital principles of things, in others it is a special energy associated with something supernatural, and for a number of thinkers of the Renaissance, the highest birthing force of the world: "This is the vital and a magical force that continuously creates, creates and throws its children into the world.Nature can do anything, because it is everything, and everything that happens and is created in the world is nature and a product of nature.nature is comparable to a person, with that key beating from within which evokes thoughts, desires, images in our soul "(A. Koyre). Vitalism is often combined with panpsychism and animism and contrasts the vital with the spiritual. It spread in the intellectual circles of Europe during the Renaissance, then died out with the rise of scientific culture, but revived again in the twentieth century, when scientific rationality began to lose ground. Does not have an understanding of the specifics of personal life.

(from lat. vita - life) - the doctrine of the qualitative difference between life and inanimate nature, the presence of special factors and forces on which the properties of living structures depend. V. opposes the explanation of life processes from the standpoint of their mechanistic and physico-chemical understanding. In the XX century. V.'s ideas became widespread in the 1920s, when, in the atmosphere of the post-war spiritual crisis, the values ​​of rationalism, mechanism, and technological progress were called into question. The main representatives of V. were Driesch, I. Reinke, Ikskul. The basic principles they uphold are: teleological causality and integrity in explaining the living; the presence of specific non-material, vital factors (entelechy, dominant) that control physical and chemical processes in a living organism and determine the direction of its development. According to Ixkül, each organism is like a monad with its own experience and the world around it. V. influenced some representatives of philosophical anthropology. The subsequent course of development of biological knowledge pushed him into the field of natural philosophy.

a doctrine explaining physico-chemical phenomena in the body on the basis of a vital principle, e.g. "vital force", "vital impulse". Vitalism opposes both materialism, which denies the specifics of life and reduces it to very complex physical phenomena (for example, Marxism and, in the time of Descartes, mechanism), and spiritualism, which explains life by the spiritual presence in us: the soul or God (for example, Leibniz). Vitalism is both a theory of reality and a denial of mechanism. This is a specific realism, which considers matter to be a special case or a boundary moment of life: its either a degraded or an emerging form.

(lat. vitalis - living, vital) - a trend in biology that defends the presence of representatives of the living world of special non-material factors that determine the specificity of this world and its qualitative difference from the inanimate. V. originates from ancient animism. Elements of V. were contained in the philosophical doctrine of Plato about the immortal soul, in the thought of Aristotle about the presence of special internal purposeful causes in living organisms. The most complete system of embryonic development was described by the German embryologist G. Driesch (late 19th - early 20th centuries). The methodological basis of his V. was the "machine theory of life." From the standpoint of the latter, it was difficult to explain the revealed facts of the regulation of developmental processes, the ability of individual cells at the earliest stages of division of a fertilized egg to develop into a full-fledged organism, regeneration phenomena, etc. Mechanistic ideas about the nature of cell divisions and the relationship of cells in a multicellular organism did not allow explaining the essence of regeneration processes and the regulatory nature of developmental processes. These processes constituted, according to Driesch, the essence of the phenomena of life. But this essence is determined, according to Driesch, the so-called. "entelechy", the factor "containing the goal". This factor, being non-material and acting outside of space and time, creates the spatial organization of the living, determines its expediency. The existence of non-material and unknowable factors in the living, which determine its qualitative difference from the non-living, was also recognized by other representatives of V. (I. Reinke, R. Francais, and others). V. is characterized by the absolutization of the qualitative originality of living things, the denial of the role of chemical and physical laws in it, and a negative attitude towards those biological theories and concepts that provide a materialistic explanation for the phenomena of life. For example, Driesch actively opposed Darwin's evolutionary theory, G. Mendel's concept of heredity. P.S. Karako

(lat. "vita", "life") - the doctrine of the qualitative irreducibility of life processes to the laws of the inorganic world, the presence in living bodies of special factors that are absent in inanimate ones.

(from lat. vitalis - vital) - a view according to which organisms have a special vitality (lat. vis vitalis), on which all manifestations of life must depend. Vitalism appeared for the first time in France and was formulated in its sharpest form by Louis Dumas (1765-1813). Vitalism rejected the explanation of life processes from the point of view of an exclusively mechanical and chemical understanding of them, but as a result of the successes of biochemistry and physical chemistry, it was pushed more and more into an area that was not yet accessible to physical and chemical analysis. In the 20th century Reinke, Driesch ("Philosophie des Organischen", 1928) and others created critical neovitalism. This theory, based on experiments on the mechanics of development, considers the "prospective potency of the elements of the germ" (Driesch; see Equipotentiality) and the role of a non-physical and non-spatial expediently acting factor, called (as in Aristotle) ​​entelechy. Neovitalism denies the possibility of a causal-mechanical explanation of life processes, attributing to them planning, purposefulness and internal, own regularity. Vitalism in this sense is represented by Paladi, E. Becher, A. Wenzl, Konrad-Martius, Ikskyul and others; the opponent of vitalism among others is Bertalanffy. See All life, Species soul, Virus, Virtuality hypothesis.

As Wikipedia says, vitalism is the doctrine of the life force that controls various processes in living organisms. Vitalists are people who are adherents of this teaching.

The theory of vitalism is completely idealistic, and it admits that some immaterial life force is contained in every organism.

All processes are dependent on this force, and they cannot be explained in any way through scientific laws. In this article, we will talk in detail about what vitalism is, how vitalistic theory developed in different historical periods, and how it influenced modern psychology and pedagogy.

History of the development of vitalism

This doctrine has evolved over different eras. So, its features can be traced in a number of traditions:

• This is "prana" and "chi" in the teachings of the East.
• Hippocrates called this the term "humor".
• Aristotle in his teaching spoke of the essence of all living things, which was taken out of the context of physics.
• The tradition of Buddhism pointed to the source of all living things, defining it as the Absolute.
• The Christian tradition also considered the source of all things.
• Hans Driesch interpreted entelechy in various data taken from experiments. Its focus is anti-mechanical.

As a result of the fact that such sciences as chemistry, biology and physics have accumulated a significant amount of data through experience, vitalism has simply begun to lose its significance and influence. So, now it is referred to as non-academic theories.

The origins of such views must be sought in antiquity. Then attempts were made to come up with a certain model of the world and the life of all living beings.

In those days, an assumption appeared that matter has different forms, which differ in their attitude to such a factor as heat. There were two forms of life, they were called organic and inorganic matter.

The latter can be brought back to its original state if it heats up and then the heating stops. But all organic structures, as a result of such heating, sinter and pass into other forms that are not restored to their previous values.

And so there was a debate among scientists about what is the reason for the differences between these two life forms. It was concluded that there is a certain force of life, which is present only in the organic form of existence.

When the theory of the causes of various diseases was developed in the 16th century (it considered microbes as such a cause), the influence of vitalism on Western medicine decreased. The functioning of various organs in living organisms also became more obvious, thanks to which scientists began to gradually abandon mystical theories to explain life phenomena.

However, a number of scientists tried to develop these ideas in their works for a long time. Nevertheless, in the 19th century Jacob Berzelius rejected the mystical explanation of vitalism. This scientist is considered the "father" of chemistry as modern science. At the same time, there were disputes among other scientists about whether there is a force in matter or not.

Later, the concept of "the power of Odin" was introduced, which explains the energy of life, penetrating all living organisms. The author of this theory was Karl Reichenbach. This concept has not received much popularity, even despite the authority of the inventor. Since then, the term "vitalism" has been used as a derogatory term.

But even in 2002, Ernst Mayr, despite the fact that he and his colleagues developed a synthetic theory of evolution and was a clear critic of vitalism, said that it was unhistorical and unscientific to ridicule the vitalists. So, if you read the works of some prominent vitalists, such as Driesch, then you have to agree with the theories that a number of biological problems cannot be explained using the philosophy of Descartes, in which the body is perceived as an ordinary robot.

Vitalistic theory in pedagogy

Separately, one should dwell on the influence of vitalism on pedagogy and psychology. Here it is immediately worth recalling the talented Italian teacher and theorist of the education of preschoolers - Maria Montessori. She was the first woman in Italian history to receive a doctorate in medicine.

Maria Montessori worked initially in a psychiatric clinic for children. She developed methods for raising babies and then incorporated them into her practice. As a result, her preschool development system became popular around the world.

Throughout her life, this woman constantly promoted the method she developed. Her works have become incredibly popular in children's institutions in several countries around the world.

Montessori's worldview is correlated with subjective idealism. She opposed the soul and the human body and was a follower of vitalistic philosophy. The teacher believed that there is a certain constant life force, which has a mystical character and is the engine in the development of each individual.

The woman was an opponent of materialism and its views on the nature of the world and man, as well as on the very process of raising a child. She developed the issues of the anthropological approach in pedagogy and set up a number of experiments in the field of educating preschoolers.

Montessori believed that just as we cannot influence the child’s body, its shape and appearance, we are also unable to understand what its inner essence and needs are, how and at what time the child may need one or another for his development. All this led her to the principles of non-violence against the child and respect for his personality.

As a result, a theory was deduced about the inadmissibility of the active role of the educator, about bringing to the fore the principles of self-education and self-education of children. In the process of practice, the teacher studied the psychology of babies, carried out constant anthropological measurements of various indicators.

In order for children to have the opportunity to study independently, various changes were made to the equipment of the rooms of children's institutions. So, desks were replaced with light furniture, comfortable equipment began to be used.

However, Montessori could not avoid a number of contradictions. So, although she said that it was impossible to know and guide the development of the baby, she herself experimented and thought out means that would help to reveal the children's vitality. She said that education is an active contribution to the normal developmental processes of the baby.

So it should be noted that the vitalistic theory still plays an important role in the development of society, especially when it comes to pedagogical issues, and this is confirmed by the prevalence of Montessori pedagogy in the practice of education. Author: Natalia Zorina

Vitalism(from lat. vitalis - “vital”) - an outdated doctrine of the presence in living organisms of an intangible supernatural force that controls life phenomena - “life force” (lat. vis vitalis) (“souls”, “entelechia”, “archaea”, etc. .). The theory of vitalism postulates that processes in biological organisms depend on this force, and cannot be explained in terms of physics, chemistry, or biochemistry.

Vitalism developed on the scale of civilizational epochs:

• in oriental teachings - “ qi" or " prana" (the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe energy structure of a person), in the teachings of Hippocrates these energies were called "humors";
• in Aristotelian classicism, the essence of the living was taken out of the physical context into the so-called "entelechies";
• in the Christian, Buddhist traditions, the essence / source of life was attributed directly to the Absolute (see Hegel and theoretical biology);
• in Hans Driesch, entelechy was interpreted in experimental data and has an anti-mechanistic orientation;

As a result of the accumulation of experimental data in chemistry and biology, starting with the synthesis of urea, vitalism has lost its significance. It currently belongs to non-academic theories and is often used as a pejorative epithet.

Development

Vitalistic views are rooted in animism. Although they were generally accepted, attempts to create a plausible scientific model date back to the early 17th century, when it was proposed that matter exists in two quite different forms, differing in their behavior with respect to heat. These two forms have been called "organic" and "inorganic". Inorganic matter can be melted down and returned to its original state as soon as the heating is stopped. Organic structures "sinter" when heated, turning into new forms that cannot be restored to their previous state simply by stopping heating. It has been debated whether the difference between these two forms of matter is due to the existence of a "life force" present only in "organic matter".

The theory of the microbiological causes of disease, supported by the invention of the microscope in the 16th century, reduced the importance of vitalism in Western medicine, and the role of organs in life became more understood, reducing the need to explain the phenomena of life through mystical "life forces". However, some scientists still considered vitalistic ideas necessary for a complete description of nature.

At the beginning of the 19th century, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, known as one of the fathers of modern chemistry, rejected the mystical explanations of vitalism, but nevertheless there were disputes about the existence of a regulating force within living matter that maintains its functions. Karl Reichenbach later developed the theory of the "Force of Odin", a form of life energy that pervades living beings. This concept never received much support, despite Reichenbach's authority. Now vitalism is often used as a pejorative epithet. But despite this, Ernst Mayr, co-founder of the synthetic theory of evolution and critic of vitalism and reductionism, wrote in 2002:

Mesmerism

In the 18th century, the vitalistic theory of “animal magnetism” by F. A. Mesmer was popular. However, the Russian term animal magnetism- translation of Mesmer's term magnetisme animal- is incorrect for four reasons:

• Anima - Aristotelian basic term, treatise "De Anima", Greek. "Per Psyche" - "About the Soul"
• Mesmer chose his term to distinguish his version of magnetic force from those mineral magnetism, cosmic magnetism and planetary magnetism.
• Mesmer believed that the force he had discovered worked only inside the bodies of people and animals.
• Mesmer chose the word animal for its origin from lat. "animus" - "breath", to identify this force as a quality inherent in creatures endowed with breath: people and animals.

Mesmer's ideas became so popular that King Louis XVI convened two commissions to study mesmerism. One was led by Joseph Guillotin, the other by Benjamin Franklin, which included Joseph Sylvan Bally and Lavoisier. The committee members studied Mesmer's theory and saw patients go into a trance. In Franklin's garden, the patient was led to five trees, one of which was "mesmerized"; the patient hugged each tree in turn to receive the "vital vibes", but fell at the "wrong" tree. At Lavoisier's house, 4 ordinary cups of water were brought to a "receptive" woman, and the fourth cup caused convulsions. But the woman calmly drank the “mesmerized” contents of the fifth, considering it to be ordinary water. the members of the commission concluded that "fluids without imagination are powerless, but imagination without fluids can produce a fluid effect." This is an important example of the victory of the power of reason and controlled experiment over false theories. Vitalist ideas are sometimes thought to be unscientific because they are untestable; here the theory was not only tested, but found to be false.

Vitalism in the history of chemistry

In the history of chemistry, vitalism played a leading role, distinguishing between organic and inorganic substances, following the Aristotelian distinction between the mineral kingdom and the animal and plant kingdoms. The main premise of these vitalistic views was the possession of organic substances, as opposed to inorganic, "life force". From this it followed and was predicted that organic compounds cannot be synthesized from inorganic ones. However, chemistry developed, and in 1828 Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea from inorganic components. Wöhler wrote a letter to Berzelius saying that he had witnessed "a great tragedy in science - the murder of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact." The "beautiful hypothesis" was vitalism; "ugly fact" - a test tube with urea crystals.

According to the conventional view of the progress of chemical science, the discoveries that followed rejected the "vital force" as more and more life processes became possible to explain by chemical or physical phenomena. However, it is not believed that vitalism died at the very moment when Wöhler synthesized urea. The "Wöhler Myth," as it was called by the historian of science Peter J. Ramberg, originated in a popular science book on the history of chemistry published in 1931, which "defying all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a knight who attempted to an attempt to synthesize a natural substance that would refute vitalism and pull back the veil of ignorance, until "in one day a miracle happened."

The main anti-mechanical thesis in chemistry is the teleological nature of processes that are no longer mechanically explained at the cell level (see, for example, Albrecht-Buehler).

Some of the greatest minds of the day continued to explore vitalism. Louis Pasteur, shortly after his famous refutation of the theory of spontaneous

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Ppsycho-emotional states

Under conditions of catastrophes and natural disasters, neuropsychiatric disorders manifest themselves in a wide range: from a state of maladaptation and neurotic, neurosis-like reactions to reactive psychoses. Their severity depends on many factors: age, gender, level of initial social adaptation; individual characterological features; additional aggravating factors at the time of the disaster (loneliness, caring for children, the presence of sick relatives, one's own helplessness: pregnancy, illness, etc.).

The psychogenic impact of extreme conditions consists not only of a direct, immediate threat to human life, but also indirect, associated with its expectation. Mental reactions during floods, hurricanes and others extreme situations do not have any specific character inherent only in a particular extreme situation. These are rather universal reactions to danger, and their frequency and depth are determined by the suddenness and intensity of an extreme situation.

Reactions to the traumatic effect of various adverse factors, to the mental activity of a person are divided into:

non-pathological psycho-emotional(to a certain extent physiological) reactions;

pathological conditions- psychogenic (reactive states).

Non-pathological psycho-emotional reactions.

They are characterized by psychological comprehensibility of reactions, their direct dependence on situations and, as a rule, a short duration. With non-pathological reactions, working capacity is usually preserved (although it is reduced), the ability to communicate with others and critically analyze one's behavior. Typical for a person who finds himself in a catastrophic situation are feelings of anxiety, fear, depression, concern for the fate of relatives and friends, the desire to find out the true extent of the catastrophe (natural disaster). Such reactions are also referred to as a state of stress, mental tension, affective reactions, etc.

Pathological conditions - psychogeny.

Psychogeny- deviations from the norm, painful mental disorders, the state of her mentally abnormal maladaptation, arising under the influence of mental trauma.

Pathological psychogenic disorders are painful conditions that disable a person, depriving him of the possibility of productive communication with other people and the ability to purposeful actions. In some cases, there are disorders of consciousness, psychopathological manifestations occur, accompanied by a wide range of psychotic disorders.

Psychopathological disorders in extreme situations have much in common with the clinic of disorders that develop under normal conditions.

However, there are also significant differences.

Firstly, due to the multiplicity of suddenly acting psychotraumatic factors in extreme situations, a simultaneous occurrence of mental disorders occurs in a large number of people.

Secondly, the clinical picture in these cases is not as individual as in "normal" psychotraumatic circumstances, and is reduced to a small number of fairly typical manifestations.

Vthird, despite the development of psychogenic disorders and the ongoing dangerous situation, the victim is forced to continue an active struggle with the consequences of a natural disaster (catastrophe) in order to survive and save the lives of loved ones and all those around him.

The most frequently observed psychogenic disorders during and after extreme situations are combined into 4 groups - non-pathological (physiological) reactions, pathological reactions, neurotic states and reactive psychoses.

A person's behavior in a suddenly developed extreme situation is largely determined by the emotion of fear, which, to certain limits, can be considered physiologically normal, since it contributes to the emergency mobilization of the physical and mental state necessary for self-preservation. With the loss of a critical attitude to one's own fear, the appearance of difficulties in expedient activity, the decrease and disappearance of the ability to control actions and make logically sound decisions, various psychotic disorders (reactive psychoses, affective-shock reactions), as well as panic states are formed.

Among reactive psychoses in a situation of mass catastrophes, affective-shock reactions and hysterical psychoses are most often observed.

Affective-shock reactions occur with a sudden shock with a threat to life, they are always short-lived, lasting from 15-20 minutes to several hours or days and are represented by two forms of shock states - hyper- and hypokinetic.

hypokinetic the variant is characterized by phenomena of emotional-motor retardation, general "numbness", sometimes up to complete immobility and mutism (affectogenic stupor). People freeze in one position, their facial expressions express either indifference or fear. Vasomotor-vegetative disturbances and deep stupefaction of consciousness are noted.

hyperkinetic the variant is characterized by acute psychomotor agitation (motor storm, fugiform reaction). People are running somewhere, their movements and statements are chaotic, fragmentary; facial expressions reflect frightening experiences. Sometimes acute speech confusion prevails in the form of an incoherent speech flow. People are disoriented, their consciousness is deeply clouded.

At hysterical disorders vivid figurative representations begin to predominate in human experiences, people become extremely suggestible and self-suggestible. Against this background, disturbances of consciousness often develop. Hysterical twilight clouding of consciousness is characterized not by its complete shutdown, but by narrowing with disorientation, deceptions of perception. In the behavior of people, a specific psycho-traumatic situation is always reflected. In the clinical picture, demonstrative behavior with crying, ridiculous laughter, hysteroform seizures is noticeable. Hysterical psychoses also include hysterical hallucinosis, pseudodementia, puarilism.

The most typical manifestations of non-psychotic (neurotic) disorders at various stages of the development of the situation are acute reactions to stress, adaptive (adaptive) neurotic reactions, neuroses (anxiety, hysterical, phobic, depressive, hypochondriacal, neurasthenia).

Acute reactions to stress are characterized by transient non-psychotic disorders of any nature that occur as a reaction to extreme physical exertion or a psychogenic situation during a natural disaster and usually disappear after a few hours or days. These reactions proceed with a predominance of emotional disturbances (states of panic, fear, anxiety and depression) or psychomotor disturbances (states of motor excitation, lethargy).

Adaptive (adaptive) reactions are expressed in mild or transient non-psychotic disorders that last longer than acute reactions to stress. They are observed in persons of any age without any obvious mental disorder preceding them. Such disorders are often to some extent limited in clinical manifestations (partial) or come to light in specific situations; they are usually reversible. Usually they are closely related in time and content to traumatic situations caused by bereavement.

Among the most frequently observed adaptation reactions in extreme conditions are:

short-term depressive reaction (reaction of loss);

prolonged depressive reaction;

a reaction with a predominant disorder of other emotions (a reaction of anxiety, fear, anxiety, etc.).

The main observable forms of neurosis include:

anxiety neurosis (fear), which is characterized by a combination of mental and somatic manifestations of anxiety that do not correspond to real danger and manifest either in the form of seizures or in the form of a stable state. Anxiety is usually diffuse and may escalate to a state of panic. Other neurotic manifestations may be present, such as obsessive or hysterical symptoms, but they do not dominate the clinical picture;

hysterical neurosis, characterized by neurotic disorders, in which violations of autonomic, sensory and motor functions ("conversion form") predominate, selective amnesia, which occurs according to the type of "conditional pleasantness and desirability", suggestion and self-hypnosis against the background of an affectively narrowed consciousness. There may be pronounced behavioral changes, sometimes taking the form of a hysterical fugue. This behavior may mimic psychosis or, rather, correspond to the patient's idea of ​​psychosis;

neurotic phobias for which a neurotic state is typical with a pathologically pronounced fear of certain objects or specific situations; depressive neurosis - it is determined by neurotic disorders characterized by depression that is inadequate in strength and clinical content, which is the result of psycho-traumatic circumstances. It does not include vital components, daily and seasonal fluctuations among its manifestations, and is determined by the patient's focus on the psychotraumatic situation that preceded the disease. Usually in the experiences of patients there is no projection of longing for the future. Often there is anxiety, as well as a mixed state of anxiety and depression;

neurasthenia, expressed by vegetative, sensorimotor and affective dysfunctions and proceeding as irritable weakness with insomnia, increased fatigue, distractibility, low mood, constant dissatisfaction with oneself and others. Neurasthenia may be the result of prolonged emotional stress, overwork, occur against the background of traumatic lesions and somatic diseases;

hypochondriacal neurosis- is manifested mainly by excessive concern for one's own health, the functioning of an organ, or, less often, the state of one's mental abilities. Usually painful experiences are combined with anxiety and depression.

The study of mental disorders observed in extreme situations, as well as the analysis of a complex of rescue, social and medical measures, makes it possible to schematically distinguish three periods in the development of the situation in which various psychogenic disorders are observed.

Psychophysiological reactionscatch for an emergency

Human behavior in different extreme situations can be different:

People experience fear, a sense of danger and confusion,

Experiencing feelings of impasse, experiencing discomfort

They behave recklessly, apathetically, do not look for a way out of the current situation,

Others, on the contrary, are in a hurry to make a rash decision.

The problem of the state, behavior and activities of people in extreme situations with a vital threat in recent years has been a serious concern for scientists and practitioners around the world. However, until now, the main attention of researchers has been directed mainly to studying the consequences of such situations - medical, psychological, economic, socio-political, etc. Probably, it should be recognized that, despite the significant amount of sufficiently substantiated data on the impact of various extreme factors and features of the organization of rescue and anti-terrorist operations, a number of aspects of the problem, in particular, the dynamics of the state and behavior of victims and hostages, so far belong to the least studied. At the same time, it is the specifics of the reactions of the victims, as well as their dynamics over time, that largely determine the strategy and tactics of anti-terrorist operations, rescue, medical, and medical-psychological measures, both immediately during an emergency and in the future.

1.Vital reactions-- duration from a few seconds to 5 -- 15 minutes, when the behavior is almost completely subordinated to the conservation imperative own life, with a characteristic narrowing of consciousness, a reduction in moral norms and restrictions, impaired perception of time intervals and the strength of external and internal stimuli (including the phenomena of psychogenic hypo- and analgesia, even with injuries accompanied by bone fractures, wounds and burns of the 1st-2nd degree up to 40% body surface).

During this period, the implementation of predominantly instinctive forms of behavior is characteristic, subsequently turning into a short-term (nevertheless with very wide variability) state of stupor. The duration and severity of vital reactions largely depend on the suddenness of the impact of the extreme factor. For example, during sudden powerful tremors, as during an earthquake in Armenia, or a train wreck near Ufa at night, when most passengers were asleep, there were cases when, realizing the instinct of self-preservation, people jumped out of the windows of staggering houses or burning cars, onto some seconds "forgetting" about their loved ones. But, if at the same time they did not receive significant damage, after a few seconds social regulation was restored, and they again rushed into collapsing buildings or flaming wagons.

If it was not possible to save loved ones, this determined the course of all subsequent stages, the specifics of the state and the prognosis of psychopathology for a very long period. Subsequent attempts at rational dissuasion that instinctive forms of behavior cannot be resisted or counteracted turned out to be ineffective. Appealing to the latest tragic events, it should be recognized that, in part, a similar situation was observed after the sudden explosion of a mine and the start of a mass execution of hostages.

2. The stage of acute psycho-emotional shock with the phenomena of overmobilization. This stage, as a rule, developed after a short-term state of stupor, lasted from 3 to 5 hours and was characterized by general mental stress, extreme mobilization of psychophysiological reserves, aggravation of perception and an increase in speed. thought processes, manifestations of reckless courage (especially when saving loved ones) while reducing the critical assessment of the situation, but maintaining the ability to expedient activities. The emotional state during this period was dominated by a feeling of despair, accompanied by sensations of dizziness and headache, as well as palpitations, dry mouth, thirst and shortness of breath. Behavior during this period is subordinated almost exclusively to the imperative of saving loved ones with the subsequent implementation of ideas about morality, professional and official duty. Despite the presence of rational components, it is during this period that panic reactions and infection of others are most likely, which can significantly complicate rescue operations. Up to 30% of the surveyed, with a subjective assessment of the deterioration of the condition, simultaneously noted an increase in physical strength and working capacity by 1.5-2 or more times. The end of this stage can be either prolonged, with the gradual appearance of a feeling of exhaustion, or come on suddenly, instantly, when people who have just been actively acting are in a state close to stupor or fainting, regardless of the situation.

3. psi stagephysiological demobilization- its duration is up to three days. In the absolute majority of cases, the onset of this stage was associated with an understanding of the scale of the tragedy (“stress of awareness”) and contacts with the seriously injured and the bodies of the dead, as well as the arrival of rescue and medical teams. The most characteristic for this period were a sharp deterioration in well-being and psycho-emotional state with a predominance of a feeling of confusion (up to a state of a kind of prostration), individual panic reactions (often irrational, but realized without any energy potential), a decrease in the moral normative behavior, a refusal to any activity and motivation for it. At the same time, pronounced depressive tendencies, disturbances in the function of attention and memory were observed (as a rule, the examined people cannot remember at all what they were doing at that time, but, naturally, these gaps are then “filled in”). Of the complaints during this period, the leading ones were nausea, "heaviness" in the head, discomfort from the gastrointestinal tract, lack of appetite, severe weakness, slowing and difficulty in breathing, tremor of the extremities.

4. The subsequent dynamics of the state and well-being of the victims is largely determined by the specifics of the impact of extreme factors, the injuries received and the moral and psychological situation after the tragic events. Following the “psychophysiological demobilization” (with a relatively high individual variability of terms), the development of the 4th stage, the “resolution stage” (from 3 to 12 days), was observed with sufficient constancy. During this period, according to the subjective assessment, the mood and well-being gradually stabilized. However, according to the results of objective data and included observation, the absolute majority of the examined patients retained a reduced emotional background, limited contacts with others, hypomimia (masque of the face), decreased intonational coloring of speech, slowness of movements, sleep and appetite disturbances, as well as various psychosomatic reactions (mainly from the side of cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract and hormonal sphere). By the end of this period, most of the victims had a desire to “speak out”, which was implemented selectively, directed mainly at persons who were not eyewitnesses of the tragic events, and was accompanied by some agitation. This phenomenon, which is part of the system of natural mechanisms psychological protection(“rejection of memories by their verbalization”), in some cases brought significant relief to the victims. At the same time, dreams that were absent in previous periods were restored, including those of disturbing and nightmarish content, which in various ways transformed the impressions of tragic events.

Against the background of subjective signs of some improvement in the condition, a further decrease in psychophysiological reserves (by the type of hyperactivation) was objectively noted, the phenomena of overwork progressively increased, and indicators of physical and mental performance significantly decreased.

5. recovery stage psychophysiological state (5th) began mainly from the end of the second week after exposure to an extreme factor and was initially most clearly manifested in behavioral reactions: interpersonal communication, the emotional coloring of speech and facial reactions began to normalize, for the first time jokes appeared that evoked an emotional response from others, dreams were restored in most of the examined. In the state of the physiological sphere, no positive dynamics were revealed at this stage either. Clinical forms of psychopathology, with the exception of transient and situational reactions, were not observed in the "acute" period (up to two weeks) after exposure to extreme factors. The main forms of transient psychopathology (according to the leading feature) in victims, as a rule, are: astheno-depressive states - 56%; psychogenic stupor - 23%; general psychomotor agitation - 11%; pronounced negativism with phenomena of autism -- 4%; delusional hallucinatory reactions (mainly during the sleepy period) - 3%; inadequacy, euphoria - 3%.

6. At a later date (in a month) in 12% - 22% of the victims, persistent sleep disturbances, unmotivated fears, recurring nightmares, obsessions, delusional-hallucinatory states and some others were detected, and signs of astheno-neurotic reactions in combination with psychosomatic violations of the activity of the gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular and endocrine systems were determined in 75% of the victims ("stage of delayed reactions"). At the same time, internal and external conflictogenicity was growing, requiring special approaches.

Appealing to the events in Beslan, it should be recognized that the severity and dynamics of the condition of the victims can be significantly different. When a person loses his parents, the world becomes empty, but, nevertheless, no matter how bitter it is, it corresponds to ordinary ideas and the natural course of events. When children die, all the colors of the world fade, for many years and decades, and sometimes forever.

A few words about the modification of society. The increase in basic anxiety and the deterioration of the psycho-physiological state of people, even those who are thousands of kilometers away from the tragedy, is a well-known fact, which is based on the inevitable psycho-emotional inclusion of the subject in any observation. It would be worth emphasizing - it is precisely the "observation" (or the "visual series", the broadcast of which, it seems, should be "dosed" against the backdrop of a full meaningful coverage of events).

The inevitable psycho-emotional inclusion forms the phenomenon of "participation" and subsequent identifications. The main form of identification in the cultural community is identification with victims and victims, which suggests the need for broad social therapy.

However, in some cases, defensive-unconscious "identification with the aggressor" is possible (especially in young people), which can lead to an increase in delinquency and crime.

After such tragic situations, as a rule, the unity of the nation increases and at the same time people feel the need for some striking changes so that everything in life becomes more honest, nobler, sincere, better than it was before, which imposes special obligations on representatives of all state bodies.

Psychological phelp with delusions and hallucinations

In the event of an emergency, various reactions from the victims are possible. It can be: delirium, hallucinations, apathy, stupor, motor excitement, aggression, fear, hysteria, nervous trembling, crying and other manifestations.

Delusions and hallucinations.

The main signs of delirium include false ideas or conclusions, in the fallacy of which the victim cannot be dissuaded.

Hallucinations are characterized by the fact that the victim experiences a sensation of the presence of imaginary objects, which in this moment do not affect the corresponding sense organs (hears voices, sees people, smells, etc.).

In this case:

It is necessary to call an ambulance or a psychiatric emergency team.

Before the arrival of an ambulance, it is important to ensure that the victim does not harm himself or others. To do this, remove dangerous objects from the victim's field of vision.

Isolate the victim and do not leave alone. Speak to the victim in a calm voice. Agree with him, do not try to convince him.

Delirium is a false conclusion that does not correspond to reality, which has arisen in connection with the disease. For delusional ideas, in contrast to errors of judgment in healthy people, illogicality, persistence, often absurdity and fantasticness are characteristic. In mental illness (for example, schizophrenia), delirium is the main disorder, in somatic diseases it can develop on the basis of infections, intoxications, organic and traumatic brain lesions, and also occur after severe psychogenic disorders or other adverse long-term effects of the external environment. Often delirium is combined with hallucinations, then they speak of hallucinatory-delusional states.

Acute delusional (hallucinatory-delusional) states are characterized by delusional ideas of relationship, persecution, influence, which are often combined with auditory hallucinations, symptoms of mental automatism, and rapidly increasing motor excitation. Affective disturbances are clearly identified. The behavior of patients is determined by the content of hallucinatory-delusional experiences and their extreme relevance, often accompanied by excitement with aggressive, destructive actions, sudden unexpected actions, self-harm, suicidal attempts or attacks on others. The patient believes that everything around him is saturated with a special, threatening meaning for him, he interprets all really occurring events in a delusional way, seeing in everything a meaning dangerous for him, insulting hints, threats, warnings, etc. The patient often does not understand the meaning of what is happening to him and usually does not seek an explanation for this. Acute delusional states are characterized by variability, unformed delirium plot, an abundance of auditory hallucinations and mental automatisms. All these phenomena can occur separately (for example, the state is determined only by delusions of persecution, relationships; hallucinations and automatisms may be absent at this stage, etc.), but more often they coexist, intertwining with each other. This structure of the hallucinatory-delusional part of the status usually corresponds to affective disorders in the form of fear, anxiety, confusion, and depression.

Depressive-delusional states are one of the most common variants of acute delusional syndrome and are characterized by a pronounced affective saturation of psychopathological disorders with a predominance of depression with anxious and melancholy coloration, agitation, fear, and confusion. Hallucinatory-delusional symptoms are closely related to affective disorders: not so much ideas of persecution predominate, but delusions of condemnation, accusation, guilt, sinfulness, imminent death. At the height of the development of the attack, nihilistic delirium may occur. Illusory-delusional derealization and depersonalization are noted. In general, it is not so much the delusion of persecution that is characteristic, but the delusion of staging, when it seems to the patient that everything around has a special meaning, in the actions and conversations of people he catches hints in his address, scenes are played out especially for him.

Instead of auditory hallucinosis, depressive-paranoid states are characterized by illusory hallucinosis, when the real conversations of those around the patient are attributed to his own account, interpreting the most insignificant phrases in a delusional sense. Often, in radio, television, and newspapers, he also sees hints in his address. There are also false positives.

Manic-delusional states are to some extent the opposite of depressive-delusional states and are characterized by a predominance of high mood with cheerfulness or anger, irritability, combined with delusional ideas of overestimating their own personality up to delusions of grandeur (patients consider themselves great scientists, reformers, inventors, etc.) . They are animated, talkative, interfere in everything, do not tolerate objection, experience a surge of strength and energy. Due to non-criticality and overestimation of their abilities due to delusional motives, patients often experience outbreaks of excitation; they commit dangerous acts, are aggressive, vicious. Sometimes the delusions of grandeur acquire an absurdly fantastic character with ideas of enormity, cosmic influences; in other cases, the behavior of patients acquires a litigious and querulant character with numerous persistent complaints to various authorities about alleged injustice.

In subacute delusional (hallucinatory-delusional) states, psychomotor agitation may be mildly expressed or absent altogether. The patient's behavior is not so changeable, impulsive: on the contrary, it may seem outwardly ordered and purposeful, which presents the greatest difficulty in correctly assessing the condition and often leads to serious consequences, since the patient's behavior is determined by delusional ideas of persecution and hallucinations that are quite relevant to him. Unlike acute states, he can to a certain extent externally control his state, knows how to hide it from others, and dissimulate his experiences. Instead of vivid affects of an acute state, malice, tension, inaccessibility predominate in subacute states. The delirium of persecution, having lost its infinity, variability, figurativeness, begins to be systematized. The perception of the surrounding world is divided into delusional and non-delusional: specific enemies and well-wishers appear.

The main distinguishing feature of chronic delusional, hallucinatory or hallucinatory-delusional states lies, first of all, in the persistence and low variability of the main psychopathological symptoms, i.e. delusions and hallucinations, mental automatisms. The systematization of delirium is especially characteristic. Relatively low severity of affective disorders is also typical for these conditions, in patients an indifferent attitude, “addiction” to constantly persisting delusions and hallucinations predominate, while orderly behavior is often preserved without exacerbations of the condition.

Diagnosis. The presence of delirium is an undoubted sign of mental illness with all the ensuing consequences. Therefore, the diagnosis of delusions is very responsible and requires its distinction from obsessions, which are also errors of judgment and are persistent. However, in contrast to delirium, obsessions not only constantly maintain a critical attitude, but the patient struggles with these pathological experiences. The patient seeks to overcome obsessive thoughts, fears (phobias), although he does not always succeed.

For the correct diagnosis of delusional states and their severity, taking into account emergency therapy, the current clinical situation is important, which is associated with unusual wide application psychopharmacotherapy, as a result of which almost all delusional patients receive antipsychotic drugs for a long time (sometimes for years). As a result, the number of mentally ill patients with psychopathological (most often delusional) disorders reduced as a result of long-term treatment, who stay outside the walls of psychiatric hospitals for a long time, live at home, often work in production or in specially created conditions (special workshops, medical and labor workshops, etc.).

It is due to the long-term neuroleptic effect in such patients that the type of disease progression decreases, and perhaps it stops. However, a deeper remission with a complete reduction of delusions, hallucinations, mental automatisms often does not occur, they persist, although they lose their "affective charge", become less relevant and do not determine the patient's behavior.

The delusional structure in such patients is systematized, little changeable, new plot lines usually do not appear for a long time, the patient operates with the same facts, a certain circle of people involved in delusions, etc. Also stable auditory hallucinations, mental automatisms.

Over time, the patient ceases to respond to persistent disorders, hides them from others. Often in favorable cases, as a result of long-term treatment, elements of a critical attitude arise when patients understand the painful nature of their experiences and are willingly treated. Usually, all these patients are not inclined to talk about their mental illness, about systematic treatment with psychotropic drugs, and often actively hide it, so doctors and other medical workers should be aware of this possibility and, in difficult cases, receive relevant information in the district neuropsychiatric dispensary. The foregoing is very relevant from the standpoint of emergency therapy, when possible exacerbations of the condition should be taken into account, both under the influence of exogenous factors and for no apparent reason. In these cases, against the background of a chronic, fairly well-compensated state, hallucinations and automatisms intensify, crazy ideas become actualized, affective disorders and arousal increase, i.e. already described subacute, and sometimes acute hallucinatory-delusional states develop.

Urgent care. First aid is to ensure the safety of the patient and the people around him in case of auto-aggression or aggression. To this end, they organize continuous supervision of the patient with constant duty around him of persons who can keep him from wrong actions. Sharp objects or other things that can be used by him for an attack should be removed from the field of view of the patient; it is necessary to block the patient's access to the windows, to avoid the possibility of his escape. In especially severe cases, the principles of fixation and transportation of patients with impaired mental activity should be used. It is very important to create a calm environment around the patient, not to allow manifestations of fear, panic, but to try to calm the patient, to explain that he is not in danger.

Medical help. It is advisable to introduce 2-4 ml of a 2.5% solution of chlorpromazine per 2-4 ml of a 2.5% solution of tizercin intramuscularly (given the ability of these drugs to reduce blood pressure, especially after the first doses, it is advisable to give the patient a horizontal position after the injection). After 2-3 and the introduction of these drugs can be repeated. In the absence of conditions for parenteral administration, chlorpromazine or tizercin should be administered orally at a dose of 120-200 mg on the first day, then the dose can be increased to 300-400 mg.

Continuing to use sedative antipsychotics (chlorpromazine, tizercin) to relieve agitation (if necessary, further increase in doses), antipsychotics of directed anti-delusional and anti-hallucinatory action are prescribed: triftazin (stelazin) 20-40 mg per day (or intramuscularly 1 ml 0.2 % solution) or haloperidol 10-15 mg per day (or intramuscularly 1 ml of a 0.5% solution). With severe depressive-delusional symptoms, it is advisable to add amitriptyline to the ongoing therapy - 150200 mg per day.

The relief of hallucinatory-delusional arousal and the general calming of the patient cannot serve as a basis for reducing doses and, moreover, stopping treatment, since a transition to a subacute state with dissimulation is possible, which requires the continuation of all measures of supervision and treatment.

Hospitalization in a psychiatric hospital is necessary in all cases of acute, subacute conditions or exacerbation of chronic delusional (hallucinatory-delusional) conditions. Before transportation, the patient is given chlorpromazine or tizercin, his sedation is added, and the above precautions are observed. If the path is long, the treatment should be repeated on the road. In the case of delusional states occurring with somatic weakness, high fever, etc., treatment should be organized on the spot.

With hallucinations, the patient perceives objects that do not really exist, as real objects of the surrounding world. There are auditory, visual, gustatory, olfactory and general sense hallucinations. More often than others, a variety of auditory hallucinations are observed. Patients hear calls, knocking, separate obscure sounds, words, phrases, conversations of one or more persons. Voices are loud and quiet, familiar and unfamiliar, their content is often unpleasant for the patient: they scold him, threaten, conspire to punish or cause any harm to the patient or his relatives. Often, auditory hallucinations are imperative (ordering), and often the patient unconditionally obeys them.

Visual hallucinations are also varied: from seeing sparks, smoke, flames to more complex ones, when colorful pictures of war, fire, flood, etc. unfold before the patient’s eyes. Visual hallucinations can be frozen, motionless or, conversely, constantly changing, as on stage or in cinema. Their content is mostly unpleasant, only in some cases visual hallucinations cause a feeling of pleasure in the patient.

Taste hallucinations usually coexist with olfactory ones: patients smell rot, feces, pus, food acquires a disgusting taste. behavior man emergency

With hallucinations of a general feeling (or, as they are otherwise called, bodily hallucinations), patients experience discomfort in different parts of the body: it seems to them that they are pricked, pinched, passed an electric current, etc.

In contrast to the described true hallucinations, the same phenomena occur in the so-called pseudo-hallucinations, but they have the character of alienation, violence, "made". Often patients say that they hear voices not at a distance from themselves, but inside the head, with the “inner ear”, or they see something not in front of the eyes, but behind the eyes, with the “inner eye”.

Diagnosis. It is practically important to distinguish hallucinations from illusions. If it seems to the patient that the closet in his room has changed its shape and has become like a bear, or if the outline of a human figure appears to him in a coat hanging on a hanger, then these are illusions. But if the patient claims that he sees animals, people, etc., while pointing into an empty space, or claims that he hears the voices of some people when there is no one nearby, in these cases we are talking about hallucinations. Illusions are a distorted perception of a real-life object. Under illusion, a person, convinced of his mistake, willingly agrees that it “seemed” to him; with hallucinations, all attempts to prove to the patient the fallacy of his statements turn out to be fruitless.

If healthy people also have illusions, when, for example, it seems to a frightened person that he sees lurking figures around the corner, then hallucinations are an undoubted sign of a mental illness and require urgent help.

By the behavior of the patient, it is possible, with careful observation, to establish the presence of hallucinations. This has a great practical value, since there are cases when patients, fearing placement in a psychiatric hospital or for some delusional reasons, try to hide, dissimulate their hallucinatory experiences. The hallucinating patient is concentrated, alert. He peers intently into space, listens intently to something or moves his lips soundlessly, answering his imaginary interlocutors. Sometimes hallucinations in the patient occur sporadically. In these cases, they are short-lived and it is important not to miss the period of hallucinations. The facial expressions of the patient often correspond to the content of hallucinations and reflect surprise, anger, fear, horror, less often joy, admiration, delight. With more pronounced hallucinations, patients aloud respond to the voices they hear, plug their ears, pinch their noses, close their eyes or spit out food in disgust, hide under the covers, fight off imaginary monsters. Under the influence of commanding (imperative) auditory hallucinations, patients often jump out of the window, jump out of the train on the move, attack others.

In isolated form, hallucinations are relatively rare. Usually they are integral part various psychopathic syndromes, most often combined with various forms of delirium. The appearance of hallucinations, especially at the beginning of the disease, usually shocks the patient, is accompanied by a sharp excitement, fear, anxiety, which necessitates emergency treatment.

Emergency care is built on the general principles of relief of arousal and treatment of hallucinatory-delusional (see) conditions. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the disease in which hallucinations develop. Thus, visual hallucinations during a feverish state or during delirium tremens require different therapeutic tactics aimed at treating the disease as a whole.

First aid should ensure the safety of the patient and others, prevent dangerous actions caused by fear, anxiety, excitement. Therefore, measures for the supervision of patients are of paramount importance, especially in an acute hallucinatory state. They do not differ significantly from alcoholic interventions in delirium.

Medical care is aimed at reducing arousal and affective disorders: chlorpromazine is administered 2-4 ml of a 2.5% solution or tizercin - 2-4 ml of a 2.5% solution intramuscularly or the same drugs orally at 100-200 mg / day. With continued use of chlorpromazine or tisercin, the doses of which can be increased to 300-400 mg / day, they are combined with drugs that selectively act on hallucinations: triftazine up to 20-40 mg / day or haloperidol up to 15-25 mg / day or trisedil up to 10-15 mg / day intramuscularly or orally at the same or slightly higher doses or etaperazine up to 60-70 mg / day.

Hospitalization in psychiatric institutions is necessary in cases where the hallucinatory (hallucinatory-delusional) syndrome is not caused by a serious physical illness. In the latter case, treatment with all precautions must be carried out with the participation of a psychiatrist on the spot or with transfer to a psychosomatic department. Transportation of patients is carried out in accordance with the basic principles of transportation of patients with mental disorders.

List of used literature.

1. M.M. Reshetnikov. Features of the state, behavior and activities of people in extreme situations with a vital threat: natural disasters, man-made disasters, terrorist attacks. - w w w. a n t hro p olo gy. r u

2. "Emergency Medical Care", ed. J.E. Tintinalli, R.L. Crouma, E. Ruiz, Translated from English by Dr. med. Sciences V.I. Candrora, MD M.V. Neverova, Dr. med. Sciences A.V. Suchkova, Ph.D. A.V. Nizovy, Yu.L. Amchenkov; ed. MD V.T. Ivashkina, MD P.G. Bryusov; Moscow "Medicine" 2001

3.Eliseev O.M. (compiler) Handbook on the provision of emergency and emergency care, "Leila", St. Petersburg, 1996

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