Feedback principle

is based on conclusions about the closedness of control systems, i.e. obtaining information about the results of the influence of the control system on the controlled one by comparing the achieved state of the controlled object with the specified one. The meaning of the principle is to establish the dependence of personal, collective and public interests on the results of systems management. Feedback is a regulating and at the same time protective means. The information received through the feedback channels allows detecting discrepancies and adjusting the behavior of the system in accordance with a given goal. The principle of adaptability is the ability of the system to take adequate actions on the various influences of external and internal factors. It is important for an organization that it can adapt to constantly changing social, political, economic, regulatory and other factors, as well as to market conditions. For the practical implementation of this principle, there must be an appropriate subdivision of the management body (department, bureau, group, specialists), whose functions include monitoring and identifying problems.

Amplifying feedback- when a change in the state of the system serves as a signal to enhance the initial change. In other words, the system provides more change in the same direction.

This feedback pushes the system along the chosen path. Depending on the initial conditions, it can lead to an increase or damping of the process. Reward is part of this feedback loop, if it is rewarding, it leads to reinforcement of the same behavior. It can be a gift, money, words of encouragement, and so on. You take an action, receive a reward, and repeat an action — this is a reinforcing feedback loop. Reward itself cannot be considered feedback unless it leads to reinforcing the same behavior. Imagine a snowball rolling down the side of a hill. With each revolution, more and more snow sticks to it, and it becomes larger and larger until it turns into an avalanche.

(Examples: knowledge, panic, team spirit, population growth, interest on bank deposit ...).

Balancing (balancing) feedback - when a change in the state of the system serves as a signal to start moving in the opposite direction in order to restore the lost balance.

Eternal growth is impossible. Someday the second type of feedback comes into play and stops growth. It is called balancing feedback, i.e. opposed to change. A loop of such a connection operates where a change in one part of the system leads to such consequences in the rest of its parts that the initial change is inhibited or played back. This form of feedback resists change and maintains system stability that would otherwise be destroyed by amplifying feedback.

Balancing feedback is aimed at achieving a goal. All systems have balancing feedback mechanisms that ensure their stability, and therefore any system has a goal, even if it is only that the system remains unchanged. Balancing feedback directs the system towards the goal, i.e. to a state where the balancing feedback mechanism is turned off and the system is balanced. Balancing feedback is always aimed at reducing the difference between the actual and the desired state of the system. As long as this difference persists, the balancing feedback will move the system in the direction of the desired state. The closer to the goal, the less the difference between these states and the less the system changes.

For example, thirst is a signal that there is a gap between the required and the actual level of fluid in the body. Drinking is necessary to reduce this difference and restore balance.

· Proactive feedback.

Anticipation is an interesting and somewhat different form of feedback. It's all about our ability to anticipate the future. The anticipation of an event that has not yet occurred becomes the cause of something that would not have happened otherwise. Thus, the future influences the present.

Anticipation creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. On the stock exchange, the equivalent of “feeling successful is the best path to success” is “money to money”. For example, there are rumors that some stocks will go up. Generally speaking, nothing happens, but the rumors attract buyers. The stock price is going up. The higher it is, the more buyers. An amplifying feedback loop is created. Finally, market analysts launch a balancing loop: they announce that the rate is overvalued - people start selling stocks, and the rate falls.

Projections of impending shortages work in exactly the same way. What do people do when they find out that a certain product will soon disappear from sale? They go out and buy more "just in case" than usual to protect themselves from the expected deficit, and thereby create that deficit.

Lag effect. Feedback operates on a closed loop principle, and it takes time to get around it. In other words, the effect may not appear immediately. This is similar to the situation with the stars. They are extremely distant from us, and many years pass before their light hits the Earth. Even the light of the nearest star, our Sun, reaches us only after nine minutes. Look at the night sky. You will see the stars as they were many years ago. In a sense, we all look to the past.

You need to allow time for the feedback mechanism to show itself. When we ignore the time lag, we judge the success of our strategy too early — long before all the consequences manifest. Considering our strategy to be effective, we can take it into service, and subsequently decide that the final results were associated not with it, but with other factors.

Questions

1. Give a definition to the concept of "management system". What system management classifications do you know? Describe them.

2. What are the main types of regularities of regulation of systems in the equation.

3. Give examples of the patterns of interaction between the part and the whole, namely: additivity, hierarchy, convergence, 80/20.

Exercise

Come up with a detailed example that reflects all three types of feedback: anticipatory, reinforcing, and balancing. Draw a diagram.

Our example: On the stock exchange, the equivalent of “feeling successful is the best path to success” is “money to money”. For example, there are rumors that some stocks will go up (proactive communication). Nothing really happens, but the rumors attract buyers. The stock price is going up. The higher it is, the more buyers. An amplifying feedback loop is created. Finally, market analysts launch a balancing loop: they announce that the rate is overvalued - people start selling stocks, and the rate falls.

Causal relationships

Definition. Causality or causality is the relationship between one event, which is called the cause, and another event, which is called the effect, which necessarily follows the first.

Max Born in 1949 formulated three assumptions on the basis of which causality is determined:

1. There are laws according to which the manifestation of an entity B of a certain class depends on the manifestation of an entity A of another class, where the word entity means any physical object, phenomenon, situation or event. A is called the cause, B is called the effect.

2. The cause always occurs earlier, or at least simultaneously with the effect.

3. Cause and effect must be in spatial contact or be linked by a chain of mediators in contact.

The complexity of socio-economic processes and phenomena lies in the fact that any result (indicator, dependent variable) depends on the reasons (factors, independent variables).

For socio-economic systems, it is characteristic that the number of reasons or conditions can be practically unlimited.

The apparatus of correlation-regression analysis is used to study cause-and-effect relationships.

Since “all elements of the system are directly or indirectly interconnected, then a change in one of the elements affects all the others. These other elements will also change, and these changes, in turn, will also cause changes in the first element. He will begin to react to this wave of feedback. Consequently, the initial impact returns to the original element in an already changed form, closing the cycle, but not spreading only in one direction. This cycle is called a feedback cycle.

There are two types of feedback:

Reinforcing feedback occurs when changes in the system return to the input of the system and reinforce the original change, leading to more changes in the same direction. The system moves away from the initial state at an increasing rate. The amplifying feedback can lead to uncontrolled exponential growth. (Examples: chain reactions leading to an explosion, increased lending volumes leading to a financial crisis, and

Balancing feedback occurs when changes in the entire system cause the original change to diminish and thereby weaken the overall effect.

Balancing feedback maintains the system in a stable state and causes the system to resist attempts to invade it with the aim of change. "

Example: the influence of the physical properties of water (high heat capacity, heat exchange during evaporation and freezing) reduce sharp fluctuations in air temperature and stabilize the Earth's climate.

Example: mutual influence of the trade union, administration and owners of the organization.

Enhancing and balancing feedbacks are more commonly referred to as positive and negative feedbacks, respectively.

Example: An oscillator is a forward feedback amplifier (gain greater than unity).

Proactive connections are reduced by the behavior of people, because they have the ability to intuitively foresee (predict) the future and build their behavior with this in mind. Proactive connections in reality might not have manifested, if not for a certain mental activity, as a result, the behavior of people.

The world around us is an extremely complex system. And to understand it, you need a system that is no less complex.

The human brain is the most complex system we know of. Weighing about 1.5 kg, it contains more than 100 trillion nerve cells - neurons; that is, about the same as the number of stars in the Milky Way. More than 10 trillion neurons are contained only in the cerebral cortex - its outer shell. And according to the systems approach, the very connections between nerve cells are more important than the cells themselves. An individual neuron can have up to one hundred thousand connections, and about a thousand of them are constantly involved. The brain is not like a computer, but each individual nerve cell works like a small computer. The cerebral cortex contains over a million trillion connections. If we started counting them one per second, the total would take 32 million years.

No two brains are alike. Everyone is born with a full complement of neurons they need, but up to 70% of these neurons die off in the first year of life. Surviving neurons form an even more complex network of connections. As we learn about the world around us, some of these connections become stronger, while others weaken. The brain cannot exist independently of the world in which it lives and which forms it; the external system of the surrounding world creates the internal system of our brain.

The task of the brain is to find patterns and find meaning in the flow of sensory information that it receives from the outside. The very act of perception also forms the meaning of the perceived information, therefore it is the brain that creates the world in the form in which it appears in front of us. Interpretation is an integral part of perception.

Specialists - neurosurgeons and neurophysiologists - define the brain as an integrated and decentralized network in which waves of coordinated and differentiated resonant structures interact in parallel and simultaneously. That is, in short, it is system the highest level of complexity.

The brain as an information structure in every bit is as complex as it flatters our vanity and frightens our intellect.

Simple and complex systems

The system exists due to the interaction of its parts; at the same time, it is not so much the size or number of these parts that is important, but the connections established between them and the influence that they have on each other. These relationships, and therefore the systems themselves, are simple and complex.

There are two ways to complicate anything. When we think about something complex, we often imagine it to be made up of many different parts. This is the complexity of the structure. If you look at a jigsaw puzzle with thousands of pieces, you can see the complexity of the structure. You can often find a way to simplify things by grouping parts together and organizing them differently, because each part has only one place it can go into. Computers can handle this kind of complexity well, especially if the procedures for working with such systems are programmable.

Another type of complexity is dynamic complexity. It arises when the elements of a system can be connected to each other in different ways, because each part can be in different possible states, and then even a small number of elements can be combined in a huge number of ways. And the seemingly irrefutable law is not always justified that the smaller the number of elements, the easier it is to understand and manage the system. It all depends on the degree of dynamic complexity.

Consider, for example, a team of employees in a firm. Each of them can simply change their mood from time to time. Therefore, there are many options for connections that can be established between them. Thus, a system can contain a small number of elements, but have tremendous dynamic complexity. And problems that seem simple enough at first glance may turn out to be too complex on closer inspection.

The emergence of new links between elements complicates the system, and the addition of new elements can create new links. When you add one new element, the number of possible relationships does not increase by one. It can grow exponentially; in other words, with the addition of each next element, the increase in the number of links exceeds the corresponding increase that arose when the previous one was added. Suppose, for example, that to begin with there are two elements - A and B. Between them there can be two connections and two ways of transmitting the impact: from A to B and from B to A. Now we add one more element - C. Three elements have appeared in the system : A, B and C. The number of possible connections increased to 6 or to 12, if we assume that two elements can form an alliance and interact with the third (for example, A with B interact with C). You see that even a small number of elements can form a dynamically complex system, even if these elements are in only one state.We know this from our own experience: it is more difficult to manage two people than one, not twice, but more than twice, because which significantly increases the likelihood of erroneous understanding; the second child more than doubles the amount of trouble and adds joy to the parents.

The simplest systems consist of a small number of elements, the range of possible states of which is insignificant, and of a small set of simple connections connecting these elements. Examples of such systems are the thermostat and the plumbing system. Both of these systems are not too complex both in composition and dynamics.

A very complex system can contain many elements and subsystems, each of which can be in a variety of states, which in turn can change under the influence of other elements. Trying to give an exhaustive description of such complex systems can be compared to finding a way out of a maze that completely changes its configuration as soon as you change the direction of movement. Any strategy game like chess has dynamic difficulty, because every time you make a move, you completely change the position on the board, as your move changes the very ratio of the pieces. (You could think of an even more complex dynamic chess game in which with each move a piece would turn into a new piece.)

The first lesson of the systems approach: find out what kind of complexity you are facing: with the complexity of the structure or with the dynamic complexity. - with a jigsaw puzzle or with chess.

The interaction between various elements of the system determines the principles of its operation, therefore any element, even the smallest and seemingly simplest, can change the behavior of the system as a whole. For example, the hypothalamus, a pea-sized region of the brain, regulates body temperature, respiration rate, water balance, and blood pressure. Likewise, heart rate affects the functions of the whole body. When it rises, you may feel anxious, excited, or joyful. When it goes down, you feel more sluggish.

All elements of the system interact and depend on each other. Connections with other elements give them the power to influence the entire system as a whole. This leads to an interesting rule of thumb for managing systems, especially groups of people: the more connections you have, the easier it is to manage. Indeed, research shows that successful managers devote four times as much time to networking as their less successful peers.

Various elements can be combined into groups to affect the system as a whole. Groups form alliances that can completely change the way a government, organization or team works.

Eternal growth is impossible. Someday the second type of feedback comes into play and stops growth. They call her balancing feedback, those. opposed to change. A loop of such a connection operates where a change in one part of the system leads to such consequences in the rest of its parts that the initial change is inhibited or played back. This form of feedback resists change and maintains system stability that would otherwise be destroyed by amplifying feedback.

Balancing feedback is sometimes called “negative,” but this name is misleading for two reasons. First, “negative feedback” is often interpreted as criticism, and second, the word “negative” usually refers to something bad. But there is nothing good or bad about balancing feedback in and of itself. Its presence simply means that the system is resisting change. It may come in handy for us, or it may hinder - it all depends on what we are trying to achieve. If we want to change a complex system, counterbalancing feedback turns out to be a "force of resistance." And if we strive to preserve the system, we will call the same quality “the force of stabilization”.

There are many balancing feedback mechanisms in our body. For example, the temperature of the human body is unchanged. A small part of the brain called the hypothalamus acts as a "thermostat" control mechanism. When the temperature deviates from the norm, it triggers changes to eliminate this phenomenon. Other balancing feedback mechanisms ensure the stability of heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature under a variety of external influences. It is the reliability of these mechanisms that makes us viable.

The balancing feedback mechanism regulates the difference between the actual and the desired state of the system. Throughout this book, the symbol of balancing feedback mechanisms will be the image of the balance:

Most of the examples on pages 48-53 relate to balancing feedback. Thirst is a signal that there is a gap between the required and the actual level of fluid in the body. Drinking is necessary to reduce this difference and restore balance. When you ride a bike, your eyes and muscles detect the deviation from balance (from the norm), and the movements of the arms and legs restore it.

Balancing Feedback aimed but attaining the goal. All systems have balancing feedback mechanisms that ensure their stability, and therefore any system has a purpose, even if it is only that. so that the system left unchanged.

balancing feedback directs the system towards the goal, i.e. to a state where the pay-balancing mechanism is turned off and the system is balanced.

Balancing feedback is always aimed at reducing the difference between the actual and the desired state of the system. As long as this difference persists, the balancing feedback will move the system in the direction of the desired state. The closer to the goal, the less the difference between these states and the less the system changes.

So, a measurement mechanism is needed, otherwise the system will not know about the difference between its actual and desired states. The measurements performed by the system must be accurate enough so that there is no risk of triggering unnecessary feedback mechanisms. For example, if a faulty thermometer is used in a thermostatic system, it will not turn on the heater when needed. There are several indicators on the dashboard of the car that report the status of various components. A few months ago, Joseph's brake light came on in Joseph's car, and this is a serious matter. But when he drove the car to the workshop, they found that the brakes were in perfect order, but the electronics were junk, which was why a false signal was received.

In addition, the measurement accuracy must be adequate for the system objectives. If, for example, a thermometer in the thermoregulation system records a difference of one hundredth of a degree, the home heating system will turn on and off by the minute, since the temperature in the room changes slightly even when someone walks in or out. On the other hand, if the thermometer shows a temperature that differs from the true one by five degrees, you will have time to freeze pretty much before the system turns on. The precision of intention, we repeat, must be consistent with the objectives of the system. As for communication, each of us is familiar with people so thick-skinned that neither yawning nor glazed eyes of the interlocutor will stop them and will not prevent them from showing the album of photos to the end. taken during the last vacation. On the other hand, some people are so hypersensitive that an accidental remark can be mistaken for an expression of disapproval, and a momentary lack of attention to them - for complete disregard.

Meaningful communication always presupposes some purpose, even if we are not aware of this, otherwise our actions would be chaotic. We always act with purpose. It can be the most trivial when we solve a problem at the micro level (as in the example considered earlier with hitting the spot with a finger), or extremely important when we plan our own life at the macro level. We may not be aware of our own goals, change them or fail, but they are always with us. Each conversation has its own task, even if it is only about not being completely boring to while away the time. In accordance with this goal, we select replicas. Often the goal is very specific: we want to sell something, convince a person that we are right, or get him to do what we need. In accordance with the goal, we select words and gestures, and the eyes and ears help us to judge how successfully the movement towards the goal is. So if we, for example, intend to sell something, then we need to pay attention to expressions of interest, answer questions and seek mutual understanding.

Because this book is a communication tool, a web of balancing feedback mechanisms has been used in the writing process. First, there was an internal balancing feedback that caused the book to change as it was written. It has been rewritten several times to make it easier to understand and to ensure that each paragraph is consistent with the main theme and overall style. The phrases you are reading now are different from those that were originally written. Second, external countervailing feedback was at work: other people — friends and colleagues — read and commented on the manuscript, praised, gave advice, and suggested ideas that undoubtedly improved the text.

A balancing feedback mechanism is involved in maintaining inventory. There should be a sufficient reserve of them in the warehouse so that customers do not have to wait, but the inventory should not be excessive, because storage space comes at a high cost. In the economy as a whole, supply and demand form the basic mechanism of balancing feedback. When demand exceeds supply and there are not enough goods, the feedback mechanism reduces demand in two ways - for

by raising prices and increasing the supply of goods. When supply exceeds demand, a feedback mechanism to stimulate demand lowers prices and possibly reduces supply by holding excess inventory or cutting production.

There are many balancing feedback mechanisms for maintaining balance in nature. They maintain balance in rainforests, steppes, deserts, swamps and coral reefs. The complex relationships between animals, plants and protozoa form feedback loops that preserve natural balance. They form a vast network in which everyone lives through relationships with others. What may seem bad to some is actually necessary to maintain the balance of ecosystems. For example, regular steppe fires are beneficial, even necessary. Fire makes the seeds of some plants germinate, it destroys old, dry vegetation, destroys unnecessary shoots on trees and does not allow alien plants to harden, which are less tolerant of it. In the long term, fire maintains the vitality of the steppes. Ecosystems seem to be getting stronger through trials.

In the animal kingdom, predators hold back herbivores. The predator and prey form a balancing feedback mechanism. For example, in Canada, wolves hunt moose, fallow deer and reindeer, caribou. In mild winters, when there is a lot of food, the number of deer increases. However, their habitat does not provide an opportunity to feed the increased herd, and after some time there is a lack of food. With an increase in the total population, the number of old and sick individuals increases. It's good for wolves. There are many deer, and it is not difficult to catch them, so the wolves begin to eat abundantly and accumulate fat. Accordingly, the number of deer decreases, and soon only the strongest and fastest remain in the herd. Now the wolves find themselves in a difficult decline: the old and sick die out, and the pressure on the herd of deer decreases. In the meantime, the food resources of the reindeer are restored and the cycle begins anew. More deer means more wolves, which leads to a decrease in the number of deer, and therefore there will be fewer wolves, then there will be more deer again ... Wolves help maintain the number of deer at a level corresponding to the food resources of the ecosystem, and deer provide a similar service to wolves ... This is the “purpose” of a particular ecosystem, although if any wolf or deer could think about it, they would hardly agree with us. It is sometimes difficult for each individual animal, but it helps to maintain natural balance, which allows both species to survive.

Both predators and their prey are affected by the disruption of the natural balance. For example, the Kaibab Plateau in Arizona can feed about 40,000 deer. Successful hunters have contributed to a significant reduction in the number of their natural enemies (wolves, cougars and coyotes), and the deer population quickly exceeded 50 thousand. There was not enough food for everyone. In desperation, the deer ate everything they could, including the bark of young trees. When there was no food left, 40,000 deer starved to death.

Disease may also be called a form of balancing feedback mechanism. When we get tired, the likelihood of getting sick increases, and after a few days of rest, the body wakes up and is able to work again. Stress has been shown to make us more susceptible to illness, and it can be called one of the ways in which the body communicates a big difference between its goal of being in a comfortable position and the actual situation. The illness makes us relax for a few days, so that later, I would like to think, with renewed vigor to return to work. So sometimes the disease unwittingly acts as a balancing feedback mechanism.

Wound healing is another example of balancing feedback. The body senses the difference between what is and what should be, and acts accordingly - the blood coagulates to close the damaged surface of the skin, form a crust under which conditions arise for wound tightening and scar tissue, or the immune system is mobilized to fight with hostile antigens.

Without balancing feedback mechanisms, neither we, nor society, nor ecosystems could survive. They are the very "glue" that keeps us all from falling apart.

The concept of "connection" is included in any definition of a system and ensures the emergence and preservation of the integrity of its properties. This concept simultaneously characterizes both the structure (statics) and the functioning (dynamics) of the system.

However, it is rather difficult to define this almost obvious concept - there are dozens of definitions. In some cases, communication is a "process ...", in others it is a "subsystem (element) ...". We can say that "connection" is a separate element and there is some sense in this, since sometimes a communication channel has a material embodiment with its own static and dynamic properties.

The simplest definition is:

connectionsis what unites the elements into a whole.

Let's look at a deeper definition.

The relationship of mutual dependence, conditioning, commonality between the elements of the system, which can be mechanical (exchange of efforts), trophic (exchange of energy) and signals (exchange of information), is called communication(interrelation) of elements.

It is assumed that links exist between all system elements, between systems and subsystems. If there is a relationship between the elements, then, therefore, there is a relationship between them.

First order links the links that are functionally necessary to each other are called. Additional links are called connections of the second order. If present, they significantly improve the performance of the system (manifestation of the synergy effect), but are not functionally necessary. Excessive or conflicting connections are called connections of the third order. Sometimes a bond is defined as limiting the freedom of elements. Indeed, the elements, entering into communication with each other, lose some of their properties, which they potentially possessed in a free state.

There are several classifications of links. Relationships can be characterized direction, strength, character(type) According to the first criterion, links are divided into directed and undirected. On the second - on strong and weak. By nature (type), there are connections submission, connections offspring (genetic), equal (indifferent), connections management.

For cybernetic models of systems, in which connections are conventionally considered unidirectional, such a definition is more adequate.

Connectionis a way of interaction between inputs and outputs of elements.

In the light of this definition, the links are divided into straight and reverse(fig. 7).

Straightthe connection between the output of one element and the input of another is called, reverse- the connection between the output and the input of the same object.

Moreover, the feedback can be carried out directly (Fig. 7, b) or with the help of other elements of the system (Fig. 7, c)

Distinguish positive (reinforcing) and negative (balancing) feedbacks. If we restrict ourselves to only external reasons for the change in output, then we can stop at such definitions.

Feedback,reducing the influence of the input action on the output value is called negative, and increasing this influence is called positive.

In general

positive(amplifying) feedback reinforces the tendency of the system output to change, and negative(balancing) - reduces it.

Thus, negative feedback contributes to the restoration of equilibrium in the system, disturbed by external influence or some internal reasons, and positive feedback enhances the deviation from the equilibrium state in comparison with its value in the system without such feedback.

Examples. Positive feedback. At the entrance - a deposit in the bank, at the exit - the amount of money in the account. If you put 1000 rubles in the bank. at 10% per annum, then in a year the account will be 1100 rubles, in 2 years - 1210 rubles. and so on. If you take a loan from the bank 1000 rubles. at 10% per annum, then in a year the account will be 1100 rubles. debt, after 2 years - 1210 rubles. etc.

Feedback is the basis of self-regulation, development of the system, its adaptation to changing conditions of existence. All of our life experiences are made up of feedback loops.

Examples of positive feedback: cancer, living cell growth, knowledge accumulation, rumor spreading, self-confidence, epidemic, nuclear reaction, panic, coral reef growth.

Examples of negative feedback: air conditioner, body temperature, blood sugar percentage, blood pressure, recovery, cycling, predators and prey, supply and demand in the market, stock regulation.

There is a curious kind of feedback - the so-called feedforward... In this case, the future influences the present. For example, if you expect failure, then chances are you will get it. Conversely, if you are in the mood for success, your energy and optimism helps you and increases your chances.

Our expectations and worries, fears and hopes contribute to the formation of exactly the future that we envision.

Proactive communication creates what are called self-fulfilling prophecies. An example is a situation with an expectation of a deficit. People believe in prophecies and act on them. Our future is built by our beliefs.

The peculiarity of proactive communication is that efforts aimed at avoiding undesirable events lead to them. Examples include the mechanism of insomnia or the paradox-wish: "Be at ease!"

Amplifying feedback occurs when an initial change is intensified by subsequent ones. In other words, the "effect" of the change reinforces its "cause", which in turn increases the change. As a result, the system begins to move away from the initial state with increasing speed.

This can lead to reinforcing proactive communication, which arises when the very fact of forecasting pushes the system away from the predicted state, and the forecast turns out to be a self-canceling prophecy.

Balancing Feedback occurs when changes in the system neutralize the original change and weaken its consequences. In other words, the "effect" of the change is opposite to its "cause". The system comes to a steady state - to the achievement of its "goal".

Balancing Proactive Communication occurs when the expectation of change pushes the system towards a predicted state, and the forecast turns out to be a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Classification of systems.

Work independently in.

1. V.N. Volkova, A.A. Denisov. Fundamentals of systems theory and systems analysis: Textbook. Ed. 3rd revised and enlarged. SPb .: Publishing house of SPbSTU, 2007.-512 p. (Column of the Ministry of Education). Literature

2. Mukhin V.I., Malinin V.S. Research of control systems: Textbook for universities. - M: Publishing house "Examination", 2003. - 384 p.

Lecture 2

SYSTEM APPROACH TO STUDY OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Lecture plan:

1. The concept and basic principles of the systems approach

2. The essence of the systems approach