A. Features and directions of social movement 30-50-ies of the XIX century.

1. The social movement of the 30-50s had characteristic features:

> it developed under conditions of political reaction (after the defeat of the Decembrists);

> the revolutionary and government directions have completely diverged;

> its participants did not have the opportunity to put their ideas into practice.

2. There are three directions of social and political thought of this period:

> conservative (the leader is Count S. Uvarov);

> Westernizers and Slavophiles (ideologists - K. Kavelin, T. Granovsky, brothers K. and I. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin and others);

> revolutionary democratic (ideologists - A. Herzen, N. Ogarev, M. Petrashevsky).

B. Circles of the 20-30s

1. In the context of the political reaction that followed the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, a new form of social struggle in Russia was the creation of circles of advanced, mainly student, youth. The most active were student circles at Moscow University. The first steps of the anti-government activities of V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev are associated with him.

2. In 1830, about VG Belinsky, the son of a military doctor, a student circle "Literary Society of Number 11" was formed, named after the number of the room in the university dormitory where Belinsky lived.

3. The circle of NV Stankevich gained great popularity, bringing together students interested in philosophy and art. The members of the circle studied the philosophy of Schelling, Kant, sought to use the progressive elements of German idealist philosophy in the development of ideas for the social development of Russia. But the views of Stankevich, like those of his friends, did not go beyond idealism and liberalism. In his opinion, only the spread of knowledge can lead to the liberation of the people from serfdom.

4. Another center of progressive noble youth was the Herzen-Ogarev circle. In 1826, Herzen and Ogarev took an oath on the Sparrow Hills in Moscow to fight the autocracy for freedom, for the liberation of the people, and remained faithful to it until the end of their lives. The circle did not last long. In the summer of 1834 Herzen, Ogarev, and other members of the circle were arrested and expelled from Moscow. Some members of the circle were placed under police supervision.

B. Conservative direction. Liberal direction. Westerners and Slavophiles

1. After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the question arises of further ways development of Russia. In solving this problem, the main lines of demarcation of social groups are outlined.

2. Liberal opposition trend in the Russian public thought in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. represented two social movements: the Slavophiles and the Westernizers.

Slavophiles - representatives of the liberal-minded aristocratic intelligentsia, advocated a fundamentally different path from Western European development of Russia on the basis of its imaginary identity (patriarchy, peasant community, Orthodoxy). Slavophilism was an opposition trend in Russian social thought. The Slavophils advocated the abolition of serfdom, advocated the development of industry, trade, education, severely criticized the political system that existed in Russia, and advocated freedom of speech and press. However, the main thesis of the Slavophils boiled down to the proof of the original path of development of Russia, or rather, to the requirement "to follow this path." They idealized such "distinctive", in their opinion, institutions as the peasant community and the Orthodox Church. They had a negative attitude towards the transformative activity of Peter I, but not because they wanted to go back to the pre-Petrine order. On the contrary, they called to “go forward”, but along the true, “original” path from which Peter I “turned off” the development of Russia. all attention must be paid to the people (peasantry). Therefore, the Slavophiles paid such great attention to the study of the way of life and life of the "common" people, believing that "he alone preserves the folk, true foundations of Russia, he is the only one who has not broken ties with the past Russia."

Slavophiles made a significant contribution to the development of Russian culture, leaving a rich heritage in philosophy, literature, history, theology, and economics.

4. Westernism also arose at the turn of the 30s-40s of the 19th century. Westerners opposed themselves to the Slavophils in disputes about the ways of development of Russia. They believed that Russia should follow the same historical path as all Western European countries, and criticized the theory of the Slavophiles about the original path of development of Russia. They glorified Peter I and viewed his activities as the first phase of Russia's renewal, believed that the second phase should begin with reforms from above, which would save Russia from social upheavals. Although the Westernizers had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the police order of the Nikolaev regime, they were staunch opponents of the revolutionary breakdown of this order. Their ideal was a constitutional-monarchical form of government according to the Western European model, with certain political guarantees of freedom of speech, press, etc.

According to their social origin and position, the majority of Westerners belonged to the noble landowners and the noble intelligentsia.

G. Petrashevtsy. Revolutionary democratic direction

1. At the turn of the 30-40-ies of the XIX century. the revolutionary-democratic trend of Russian social thought is taking shape. Representatives of this trend are V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, the "left wing" of the Petrashevtsy circle.

The Hegelian dialectical method served Herzen in the theoretical substantiation of the inevitability of a revolutionary transformation of the feudal-absolutist system in Russia. This is reflected in the original theory of "Russian socialism". The defeat of the revolutions of 1848-1849 in Europe gave rise to Herzen's disbelief in the revolutionary potential of Western European countries and led him to the conclusion that in the future socialism would first be established not in European countries, but in Russia. There are necessary prerequisites for this: peasant communal land tenure, the peasant idea of ​​the equal right of all to land, mundane self-government and the "collectivist" consciousness of the Russian peasant. The theory of "Russian socialism" proceeded from the idea of ​​a "distinctive" path of development of Russia towards socialism, bypassing capitalism. For all its utopianism, this theory objectively expressed the urgent tasks of the bourgeois-democratic transformation of Russia. It was aimed at overthrowing the serf system, abolishing landlordism and consistent democratization of the country. This is its revolutionary meaning and historical meaning"Russian socialism".

Notable place in liberation movement The 40s is occupied by a circle of Petrashevists. It was founded by a young gifted official of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky, in whose apartment young intelligentsia gathered since the winter of 1845: teachers, writers, petty officials, senior students. Since 1847, the nature of meetings began to change significantly: members of the circle began to discuss acute political problems, criticized the existing system, talked about the need to abolish serfdom, freedom of the press, and the introduction of lawyers and jurors into legal proceedings. Under the influence of the 1848 revolution in Europe, the ideas of utopian socialism enjoyed particular popularity among the Petrashevites. In March-April 1849, the Petrashevites began to form a secret political organization, preparing for the printing of proclamations. But the activities of the circle did not develop.

In April 1949, the Petrashevites were arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. 21 people were sentenced to death, including Petrashevsky and Dostoevsky. At the end of December 1849, a dramatization took place on Semenovskaya Square in St. Petersburg death penalty: the death sentence was read, white caps were thrown over the heads of the convicts, drumming sounded, but at the last moment an adjutant wing arrived with the tsar's order to abolish the death penalty and replace it with a link to hard labor.

The leader of the conservative direction of social life was S.S. Uvarov, Minister of Education, President of the Academy of Sciences, author of the Theory of the Official Nationality - the foundations of the Conservative ideology. Among the theoreticians of this direction, the historians N.M. Karamzin and M.P. Pogodin, playwright N.V. Puppeteer, writers F.V. Bulgarin, N.I. Grech, M.N. Zagoskin.

After the defeat of the Decembrists, Russia is going through a period of political reaction. In the late 1820s and early 1830s. the revolutionary direction exists only in a few student circles. Among them are the circles of the Cretan brothers (1827) and Sungurov (1831), who tried to continue the work of the Decembrists and were mercilessly defeated by the government.

The authorities consistently persecuted those organizations that embraced the new ideas of utopian socialism: Herzen's circle in Moscow (1833-1834) and the Petrashevsky society in St. Petersburg (1845-1849, FM Dostoevsky participated in the work of the circle). Quiet was the existence of the moderately liberal circle of Stankevich (1833-1839), far from politics, whose members were fond of German idealist philosophy.

By the end of the 1830s. in the liberal thought of Russia, two directions are clearly distinguished - Westernism and Slavophilism, - who offer their concepts historical development Russia and the program of its reorganization.

Westerners (V.P. Botkin, E.F.Kort, K.D. Kavelin, V.P. Botkin, I.S.Turgenev, historians S.M.Soloviev and T.N. Granovsky) believed that Russia was an ordinary European state deviated from the "correct" path of development after the start Mongol yoke and returned to it, as a result of the reforms of Peter the Great. The movement to the west is greatly hampered by the persistence of serfdom and despotism. The government and society must prepare and carry out well-thought-out, consistent reforms (abolition of serfdom and limitation of absolutism), with the help of which the gap between Russia and Western Europe will be bridged.

From the point of view of the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers I.V. and P.V.Kireevsky, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, A.I. Koshelev), Russia is developing in its own, original way. They called its main features a peasant community, Orthodoxy, collectivism, limited absolutism, democratic traditions (in the form of Zemsky Sobors). As a result of Peter's reforms, this harmonious structure of Rus was destroyed. It was Peter who introduced serfdom, interfering with the existence of the community, the despotism of power and European customs. It is necessary to return Russia to the "correct" path of development, abolishing serfdom, limiting absolutism and returning to the original way of life. The Slavophils hoped to achieve this goal with the help of reforms to be carried out by the Zemsky Sobor convened by the emperor. A special, very moderate position was taken by the "Moscow Slavophiles" (YM Samarin). They opposed radical reforms and serious restrictions on the autocracy. Their motto is: “ The power of power is for the king. The power of opinion is for the people. "

Thus, both currents of liberalism in Russia, interpreting the features of its historical path in completely different ways, came out with the same slogans, calling for the abolition of serfdom and the limitation of absolutism.

Representatives of the radical direction, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev and V.G. Belinsky in the late 1830s - early 1840s, shared the main ideas of the Westernizers. However, later the radicals subjected the capitalist system to the sharpest criticism. In their opinion, a new type of society should be built in Russia - communal (Russian) socialism(the author of his theory is A.I. Herzen). The basic unit of the new society should be the peasant community, the universal equality of its members the radicals considered the main feature of socialism. In the late 1840s. Herzen and Ogarev emigrated to England. There from 1857 to 1867. they publish the first Russian revolutionary newspaper, The Kolokol.

P. Ya. Occupies a special place in the social movement. Chaadaev, a participant in the war of 1812 and the Northern Society of the Decembrists. In their " Philosophical letters"(1829-1831) he spoke about the excommunication of Russia from world history, about the spiritual stagnation caused by the peculiarities of Orthodoxy, which impedes the historical development of the country. For the publication of "Letters" in the magazine "Telescope" (1836) Chaadaev was declared insane. In 1837 he writes “ Apology for the madman", In which he expresses the hope for the inclusion of Russia in the Western Christian civilization.

Culture of the first half of the 19th century - "The Golden Age of Russian Culture"

One of the most important phenomena in the history of Russian culture of that time was the transformation of the public education system in 1803. The lower stage in it was 2-class parish schools for peasant children; next - 4-class district schools for the children of the bourgeoisie; in the provincial cities, gymnasiums were established for the offspring of the nobility, from where the way to the university opened. Thus, the system was of a class character, but in principle it was open, open: there was a possibility of transition from one stage to another. Under Nicholas I, the situation changed: the transition from one stage to another became almost impossible. In 1835, a new university charter was issued, which nullified their autonomy.

Significant advances have been made in science. The works of N.I. Lobachevsky (created non-Euclidean geometry) and P.L. Chebyshev (proved the law large numbers). Outstanding discoveries were made in the field of organic chemistry by N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov. Advances in the study of electricity and magnetism are associated with the names of V.V. Petrova (study of the properties of an electric arc), E.X. Lenz and B.S. Jacobi (electroforming method). In medicine great importance had the works of N.I. Pirogov, who was the first to use a plaster cast and ether anesthesia. With the name V.Ya. Struve connected the beginning of the work of the Pulkovo Observatory and major discoveries in astronomy. P.P. Anosov unraveled the secret of Damascus steel.

The most important milestone in the development of national historical science was the 12-volume " History of Russian Goverment"N.M. Karamzin. The design of the nobility trend in historiography is associated with the names of historians N.G. Ustryalova and M.N. Pogodin. During this period, the works on world history Professor of Moscow State University T.N. Granovsky.

In the first half of the 19th century. numerous round-the-world travels are undertaken. The first round the world trip in the history of Russia was made under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky in 1803 - 1806 New islands were discovered in the Pacific and Arctic oceans, valuable ethnographic information about the life of the indigenous population of Sakhalin and Kamchatka was obtained and recorded. In 1821, also during round the world, committed under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.I. Lazarev, the sixth part of the world was discovered - Antarctica. Expeditions F.P. Wrangel, F.F. Matyushin made a description of the northeastern coasts of Asia, P.K. Pakhtusova, F.P. Litke - the islands of the Arctic Ocean.

In the first half of the 19th century. new features appear in Russian literature, most clearly manifested in romanticism (V.A.Zhukovsky and K.N.Batyushkov), which at the beginning of the century gradually replaced those inherited from the 18th century. classicism and sentimentalism.

With the names of A.S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N.A. Nekrasov, N.V. Gogol is connected with the victory of the new and the most significant in the Russian literature XIX in. directions - realism.

In the visual arts, the romantic perception of the world is also being strengthened, magnificent examples of which are given in the works of O.A. Kiprensky (portraits of Pushkin and Zhukovsky) and K.P. Bryullov (" The last day of Pompeii», « Rider"," Self-portrait ").

In the 1830s - 1840s. in painting there is also a gradual development of realism. The first steps in this direction were made by V.A. Tropinin (" Lacemaker", A portrait of Pushkin) and A.G. Venetsianov (" On the threshing floor», « On arable land"). The pinnacle of realism in painting in the 1840s. genre paintings by P.A. Fedotova ( "Major's matchmaking", "Breakfast of an aristocrat", "Anchor, another anchor"). The tragic figure of A.A. Ivanov is a deeply religious artist who has devoted his whole life to the embodiment of his thoughts and feelings in a vivid picture " The Appearance of Christ to the People».

In architecture, the positions of late classicism ( Empire style), which is characterized by solemn monumentality, severity and simplicity, turned out to be very durable. His best creations of the first half of the 19th century: building Admiralty(A.D. Zakharov), Saint Isaac's Cathedral(O. Montferrand), Kazan Cathedral, Mining Institute(A.N. Voronikhin), and ensemble of the General Staff, Senate and Synod(K.I. Rossi) in St. Petersburg, The Bolshoi Theatre(A. Mikhailov - O. Bove) and the building of Moscow University rebuilt after the fire (D. Gilardi).

Since the late 1830s. under the influence of the theory of the official nationality, an eclectic Russian-Byzantine style ( The Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Moskovsky railway station in St. Petersburg and St. Petersburg in Moscow- all K.A. Tone).

First half of the 19th century characterized by the development of the art of sculpture, and primarily monumental. Heroic pages remain the main theme national history: monuments to Minin and Pozharsky in Moscow (I.P. Martos), Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in St. Petersburg near the Kazan Cathedral (B.I.Orlovsky). The sculptural group “ Taming the horse"On the Anichkov bridge in St. Petersburg.

The beginning of the 19th century. marked by a fairly intensive growth in the number of theaters and theater companies. In 1824 the Bolshoi and Maly theaters were formed in Moscow. In 1832, the Alexandria Theater began its activity in St. Petersburg. The founder of realism in acting is rightfully considered M.S. Shchepkin. Outstanding tragic actors P.S. Mochalov, V.A. Karatygin, M.S. Shchepkin created memorable characters in the plays of Shakespeare, Schiller, Gogol, Ostrovsky, Turgenev.

Features and directions of social movement of the 30s - 50s of the nineteenth century:

1. It developed under conditions of political reaction (after the defeat of the Decembrists)
2. The revolutionary and government directions finally parted
3. Its participants did not have the opportunity to put their ideas into practice

Directions of socio-political social movements under Nicholas 1 thoughts of this period:

• Conservative (leader - Count S.S.Uvarov)
• Westerners and Slavophiles (ideologists Kavelin, Granovsky, brothers K. and I. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin, etc.)
• Revolutionary Democratic ~ ideologists - A. Herzen, N. Ogarev, M. Petrashevsky)

Circles of the 20s - 30s - Social movements under Nicholas I

The most active were student circles at Moscow University. 1830 VG Belinsky created a "literary society of the 11th number" - they criticized social and political reality. Belinsky was expelled from the university for the drama "Dmitry Kalitin".

Circle of Cretan Brothers (1826 -1827) - Social movement under Nicholas I

Consisted of 6 people. They tried to put a proclamation at the monument to Minin and Pozharsky. Defeated by the authorities.

Sungur society (1831) - Social movements under Nicholas I

Consisted of 26 people. NP Surgunov planned to prepare an armed uprising, but was defeated by the authorities.

Circle of N.V. Stankevin (1831 - 1839) - Social movement under Nicholas I

Bakunin, Belinsky, Botkin, Herzen. They studied the philosophical systems of Hegel, Schelling.

Conservative direction - Social movement under Nicholas I

Historian Pogodin, philologist Shevyrev, journalists Grech and Bulgarin. In the mid-1920s, they proposed the concept of the identity of Russia “Theory of the official nationality.” SS Uvarov, who became Minister of Public Education in 1833. The bottom line was that autocracy, Orthodoxy and nationality are the foundations of Russian history. Autocracy is the guarantor the inviolability of the Russian state Orthodoxy is the basis of the spiritual life of the people Nationality is the "unity" of the tsar with the people, the absence of social conflicts.

Liberal direction (powerful social movement under Nicholas I)

Slavophiles and Westernizers

Slavophiles - the course of social thought appeared in 1840. Ideologists - A.S. Khomyakov, Kireevsky brothers, Aksakov brothers, Samarin.

• The protection of Orthodoxy and nationality is the most important characteristic of Russian society
• Nationality (Orthodoxy, community and national Russian character)
• In Russia, the government is in harmony with the people
• Russia is developing in a non-violent way
• In Russia, spiritual values ​​prevail over material ones
• Negative attitude towards transformative activities Peter I
• Russia has its own development path that is different from Europe
• Serfdom must be eliminated, preserving the community and the patriarchal way of life -> spiritual way, did not oppose technology)
• To determine the path of development - to create a Zemsky Sobor
• They denied revolution and radical reforms - gradual transformations carried out "from above".

Westernism - Granovsky, Kavelin, Annenkov, Chicherin, Soloviev, Botkin, Belinsky.

Westernization ideas:

• Russia, a developing country lags behind the West and retains a number of national characteristics
• It is necessary to eliminate the historical lag by perceiving the achievements and values ​​of the West
• Liberal ideals of individual freedom, civil society, establishing a constitutional monarchy
• Develop market relations
• Abolition of serfdom, transfer the land for ransom ( the main idea of this social movement under Nicholas 1).
• The means of renewing Russia - reforms "from above" - ​​to prevent revolution
• Exalted the activities of Peter 1 for the renewal of Russia

Revolutionary democracy

Combining the idea of ​​Westernism (personal freedom, civil law) and Slavophilism (communal system, collectivism and European socialism).

The goal of the movement is to create a socialist society.

The methods of achieving the goal are radical reforms or mass revolution. The theory of "Russian socialism" (populism) Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Ogarev, Dobrolyubov, Bakunin.

• Achieve the goal through the rural community with its collectivism and self-government
• Russia needs to bypass capitalism from serfdom to socialism
• Avoiding a bloody revolution - through radical reforms "from above"
• Eliminate serfdom, give land without redemption, preserving the community
• Civil liberties and democratic government

Herzen publishes The Bell in London. Bakunin took part in the European revolution of 1848-1949. theorist of anarchism.

Petrashevtsy - Petrashevsky, Butashevich, Speshnev, Saltykov - Shchedrin, Pleshcheev, Dostoevsky.

They talked about the abolition of serfdom. In 1849. the circle is crushed.

Thus, by the middle of the 19th century, currents in opposition to the government took shape.

After the defeat of the Decembrists, Russia is going through a period of political reaction. In the 1830s. only a few circles of student youth have an independent spiritual life. Some of them - the circle of the Cretan brothers (1827) and the circle of Sungurov (1831) - tried to continue the work of the Decembrists and were mercilessly defeated by the government. The authorities consistently persecuted those organizations that adopted the new ideas of utopian socialism: the Herzen circle in Moscow (1833 - 1834) and the Petrashevsky society in St. Petersburg (1845 - 1849). The existence of the Stankevich circle (1833 - 1839), which was far from politics, was more calm, whose members were fond of German idealistic philosophy.

By the end of the 1830s. As a result of intense spiritual searches of the advanced part of Russian society, several integral trends manifest themselves here, which offer their own concepts of the historical development of Russia and programs for its reorganization.

Westerners(T. N. Granovsky, V. P. Botkin, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Kavelin) believed that Russia was following the European path, having entered it with a delay, as a result of the reforms of Peter the Great. The movement "in the western direction" must inevitably lead to the replacement of serf labor by free labor and the transformation of the despotic state system into a constitutional one. The main task of the "educated minority" in these conditions is to prepare Russian society for the idea of ​​the need for reforms and to influence the authorities in the proper spirit. It is the authorities and society in vivid cooperation that must prepare and conduct well-thought-out, consistent reform, with the help of which the gap between Russia and Western Europe will be closed. Radically tuned by A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev and V.G.Belinsky at the end of 1830 - early. 1840s shared the main ideas of the Westerners. However, the radicals subjected the bourgeois system to the sharpest criticism. From their point of view, Russia in its development must not only catch up with the West European countries, but also take a decisive revolutionary step with them towards a fundamentally new system - socialism. From point of view Slavophiles(A. S. Khomyakov, brothers I. V. and P. V. Kireevsky, brothers K. S. and I. S. Aksakov, Yu. M. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev), Russia for a long time went completely different way than Western Europe. The history of the latter was determined by the constant struggle of egoistic individuals, estates hostile to each other, despotism on the blood of the built states. At the heart of Russian history was community, all members of which were bound by common interests. Orthodox religion even more strengthened the original ability of the Russian people to sacrifice their own interests for the sake of common interests. Government took care of the Russian people, protected them from external enemies, maintained the necessary order, but did not interfere in spiritual, private, local life. The power was of an autocratic nature, but at the same time it was sensitive to the opinion of the people, maintaining contact with them through the Zemsky Sobors. As a result of Peter's reforms, this harmonious structure of Rus was destroyed. It was Peter who introduced serfdom, which divided the Russian people into masters and slaves. In addition, he tried to instill in the masters Western European customs. Under Peter, the state acquired a despotic character. The Slavophiles called for the restoration of the old Russian foundations of social and state life: to revive the spiritual unity of the Russian people (for which it should abolish serfdom); to get rid of the despotic nature of the autocratic system, to establish the lost relationship between the state and the people. The Slavophils hoped to achieve this goal by introducing wide publicity; they also dreamed of the revival of the Zemsky Cathedrals.

Thus, creating the concept of the development of Russia, representatives of various currents of social thought in the 30s - 40s. acted in one direction. The abolition of serfdom and the reorganization of the despotic state system - these are the primary tasks, with the solution of which Russia was supposed to start moving to a new level of development.

The defeat of the Decembrists and the strengthening of the government's police-repressive policy did not lead to a decline in the social movement. On the contrary, it became even more lively. In the social movement of the second quarter of the 19th century, the demarcation of three ideological directions began: revolutionary, liberal and conservative. In contrast to the previous period, the activity of the conservatives intensified, defending the system that existed in Russia.

2.1. Conservative, liberal and revolutionary tendencies.

Conservative direction.

Conservatism in Russia was based on theories that proved the inviolability of autocracy and serfdom. The idea of ​​the need for autocracy as a form of political power inherent in Russia since ancient times is rooted in the period of strengthening of the Russian state. It developed and improved during the 18th-19th centuries, adapting to new socio-political conditions. This idea acquired a special meaning for Russia after the abolition of absolutism in Western Europe. IN early XIX in. N.M. Karamzin wrote about the need to preserve the wise autocracy, which, in his opinion, "founded and revived Russia." The speech of the Decembrists activated conservative public thought.

For the ideological substantiation of autocracy, the Minister of Public Education, Count S.S. Uvarov created the theory of the official nationality. It was based on three principles: autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality.

In this theory, enlightenment ideas about unity, a voluntary union of the sovereign and the people, about the absence of opposite classes in Russian society were refracted. The originality was in the recognition of autocracy as the only possible form of government in Russia. Serfdom was seen as a blessing for the people and the state. Orthodoxy was understood as a deep religiosity and adherence to orthodox Christianity inherent in the Russian people. From these postulates, it was concluded that it was impossible and unnecessary for radical social changes in Russia, and that it was necessary to strengthen autocracy and serfdom.

The theory of the official nationality provoked sharp criticism not only of the radical-minded part of society, but also of the liberals. The most famous was the speech of PL Chaadaev, who wrote "Philosophical Letters" criticizing autocracy, serfdom and all official ideology. In the first letter published in the Teleskop magazine in 1836, PL. Chaadaev denied the possibility of social progress in Russia, did not see anything bright either in the past or in the present of the Russian people. In his opinion, Russia, cut off from Western Europe, ossified in its moral, religious, Orthodox dogmas, was in dead stagnation. He saw the salvation of Russia, its progress in the use of European experience, in the unification of the countries of Christian civilization into a new community that would ensure the spiritual freedom of all peoples.

The government brutally cracked down on the author and publisher of the letter. P.Ya. Chaadaev was declared insane and put under police surveillance. The Telescope magazine was closed. Its editor, N.I. Nadezhdin was expelled from Moscow with a ban on publishing and teaching. However, the ideas expressed by the SP. Chaadaev, caused a great public outcry and had a significant impact on further development public thought.

Liberal direction.

At the turn of the 30-40s of the XIX century. among the liberals opposed to the government, two ideological currents developed - Slavophilism and Westernism. The ideologists of the Slavophiles were writers, philosophers and publicists: K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, Yu.F. Samarin and others. The ideologists of the Westernizers are historians, lawyers, writers and publicists: T.N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, S.M. Soloviev, V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, I.I. Panaev, V.F. Korsch and others. The representatives of these movements were united by the desire to see Russia prosperous and powerful in the circle of all European powers. To do this, they considered it necessary to change its socio-political system, establish a constitutional monarchy, soften and even abolish serfdom, endow peasants with small allotments of land, introduce freedom of speech and conscience. Fearing revolutionary upheavals, they believed that the government itself should carry out the necessary reforms.

At the same time, there were also significant differences in the views of the Slavophiles and Westernizers.

Slavophiles exaggerated the national identity of Russia. Idealizing the history of pre-Petrine Russia, they insisted on a return to the order when Zemsky Sobors conveyed the opinion of the people to the authorities, when patriarchal relations allegedly existed between landowners and peasants. One of the fundamental ideas of the Slavophiles was that Orthodoxy is the only true and deeply moral religion. In their opinion, the Russian people have a special spirit of collectivism, in contrast to Western Europe, where individualism reigns. By this they explained the special path of the historical development of Russia. The struggle of the Slavophils against servility before the West, their study of the history of the people and the way of life of the people were of great positive importance for the development of Russian culture.

The Westernizers proceeded from the premise that Russia should develop in the mainstream of European civilization. They sharply criticized the Slavophils for opposing Russia and the West, explaining its difference by historically established backwardness. Denying the special role of the peasant community, the Westerners believed that the government imposed it on the people for the convenience of administration and collection of taxes. They advocated a broad enlightenment of the people, believing that this is the only sure way for the success of the modernization of the socio-political system of Russia. Their criticism of serfdom and a call for a change in domestic policy also contributed to the development of social and political thought.

Slavophiles and Westernizers laid down in the 30-50s of the XIX century. the basis of the liberal reformist direction in the social movement.

Revolutionary movement (radical).

In the second half of the 1920s and the first half of the 1930s, small circles that appeared in Moscow and in the provinces, where police supervision and espionage were not so strongly established as in St. Petersburg, became a characteristic organizational form of the anti-government movement. Their members shared the ideology of the Decembrists and condemned the reprisals against them. At the same time, they tried to overcome the mistakes of their predecessors, disseminated freedom-loving poems, and criticized government policies. The works of the Decembrist poets became widely known. All of Russia was read out the famous message to Siberia by A.S. Pushkin and the Decembrists' answer to him. Moscow University student A.I. Polezhaev for his freedom-loving poem "Sashka" was expelled from the university and sent to the army.

Secret organizations of the first half of the 30s of the XIX century. were mainly educational in nature. Around N.V. Stankevich, V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev formed groups whose members studied domestic and foreign political works, promoted the latest Western philosophy. In 1831, the "Sungurovskoe Society" was formed, named after its leader, a graduate of Moscow University N.P. Sungurova. Students, members of the organization, embraced the ideological heritage of the Decembrists. They opposed serfdom and autocracy and called for the introduction of a constitution in Russia. They not only engaged in educational activities, but also developed plans for an armed uprising in Moscow. All these circles operated for a short time. They did not grow up in organizations capable of having a significant impact on changing the political situation in Russia.

The second half of the 1930s was characterized by a decline in the social movement due to the defeat of secret circles and the closure of a number of leading magazines. Many public figures were carried away by Hegel's philosophical postulate "everything that is rational is real, everything that is real is rational" and on this basis tried to come to terms with the "vile" one, according to V.G. Belinsky, Russian reality. In the 40s of the XIX century. in a radical direction, a new upsurge has been outlined. He was associated with the activities of V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogareva, M.V. Butashevich-Petrasheveky and others.

Literary critic V.G. Belinsky, revealing the ideological content of the reviewed works, fostered in the readers a hatred of tyranny and serfdom, love of the people. The ideal of the political system for him was a society in which "there will be no rich, no poor, no kings, no subjects, but there will be brothers, there will be people." V.G. Belinsky was close to some of the ideas of Westerners, but he also saw the negative sides of European capitalism. His "Letter to Gogol", in which he condemned the writer for mysticism and refusal of social struggle, became widely known. V.G. Belinsky wrote: "Russia needs not sermons, but the awakening of a sense of human dignity. Civilization, enlightenment, humanity should become the property of the Russian people." The Letter, which was sold in hundreds of lists, was of great importance for the education of a new generation of radicals.

Conclusion

Thus, we can say that the reign of Nicholas I became an era of intense reflections on the fate of Russia. Before many educated people then questions arose about the past, present and future of the country, about which path its further development would take. Disputes between adherents of various philosophical and political trends were often of the most acute nature and were the main event in the social life of Russia.

On the part of the internal government of the country, due to a lack of decisiveness, all of Nicholas' legislation on peasants remained without practical consequences, which must be distinguished from changes in legislative law.