Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the building block of life, the biological memory code that ensures the transfer of genetic data from generation to generation throughout the evolution of living things. DNA is made in the form of a double helix, and also contains information about the structure of various types of RNA and proteins. Chemically, DNA is a long polymer molecule made up of repeating blocks of nucleotides. However, from a biological point of view, DNA is the key to understanding life at the most subtle level, an outlet to experiments on the genome, which allows decoding the DNA code and the future of humanity as a class of creatures independent of natural evolution. For deciphering the structure of DNA in 1953, three scientists received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

We also know from the course of school biology that with the normal formation of the human body (read: without various congenital pathologies), most of our hereditary information is encoded in 23 pairs of chromosomes. But have you ever wondered why there are 23 of these pairs? Why not 24, 25 or even 16? And in general, why is there an even number of chromosomes? Let's figure it out.

The traditional one is made up of four base pairs A, C, G, and T. But the newly created genetic system is packed with eight - twice as many as is usually found in self-replicating molecules. The new system was named "hachimoji", and what is most interesting - it may look like the building blocks of extraterrestrial life, that is, aliens. A new study published recently in Science describes hachimoji, which means "eight letters" in Japanese.

From the school course in biology, everyone knows that DNA is a "data bank" that stores information about all living things. It is DNA that makes it possible to transfer data on the development and functioning of living organisms during their reproduction. Deoxyribonucleic acid is the basis of all living things. It is thanks to this molecule that all organisms are able to maintain their population. What do you know about human DNA?

In 1869, the world learned about the existence of DNA: this discovery was made by Johann Friedrich Miescher. And almost 100 years later (1953), two outstanding scientists made a sensational discovery: DNA consists of a double helix. These scientists were Francis Crick and James Watson. Since then, for more than 50 years, scientists around the world have been trying to uncover all the secrets of DNA.

Human DNA - Mystery Solved:

- The DNA of all people on the planet is 99.9% identical, and only 0.1% unique. It is this 0.1% that influences who we are and what we are. Sometimes it happens that this value (0.1%) manifests itself in a very unexpected way: children are born who are not similar to their parents, but to the great-grandmother or great-grandfather of one of the parents, and sometimes even more distant ancestors appear.

- We are 30% salad and 50% banana! And this is really so: the DNA of each of us, regardless of age, gender, skin color and other characteristics, is identical with the DNA of lettuce and banana leaves by 30 and 50 percent, respectively.

- Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are the only cells that lack DNA.

- There are 80 thousand genes in human DNA, and 200 of them are inherited from bacteria.

- Very rarely people are born who have not 1, but 2 sets of DNA. Such people are called chimeras; organs in their bodies have different DNA.

- Humans have only 2 chromosomes less than chimpanzees.

- The human genetic code has 2 meanings. Previously, it was believed that the value is 1, but the American scientist John Stamatoiannopoulos, together with his team in 2013, discovered the second value. Thanks to this discovery, Western medicine began to develop in the direction of studying the human genome, which in the future will allow for "genetic" treatment.

- In space there is a "Disc of Immortality", which stores the digitized DNA of some prominent personalities.

- There are living organisms on our planet, whose DNA, under the most favorable living conditions, could provide them with immortality. But man is not one of them.

And these are far from all the mysteries of a small molecule, without which life on Earth would be impossible.

A new look at DNA

DNA is a deep mystery for most of us. We hear this word, we seem to understand its meaning, but we cannot even imagine how difficult it is and why it is actually needed. So let's try to figure it out together. First, let's talk about what we were taught in school, and then about what we weren't taught.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the main human program. From a chemical point of view, it is a very long polymer molecule, which looks like two chains spiraling around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating "building blocks" called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group and actually nitrogenous base. The bonds between the nucleotides in the chain are formed by deoxyribose and the phosphate group. And nitrogenous bases provide a bond between the two spiral chains. That is, the actual creation of living matter. There are four types of bases. And it is their sequence that forms the genetic code.

The human genetic code contains about three billion DNA base pairs and about 23,000 genes (at the last count), which are responsible for all our inherent traits and qualities. This includes everything that we receive from nature, as well as what we inherit from our parents and their parents. A gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism. It may contain information about eye color, how to create a kidney, and hereditary diseases such as Alzheimer's. So heredity is not only the qualities of the parents, but also the general qualities of a person. We can say that genes contain everything that is human in us, along with unique characteristics inherited from our parents. You may have heard of RNA (ribonucleic acid) as well. It participates in the transcription process, which actually begins the production and management of proteins. DNA is the template on which RNA is created and the program that this process follows.

Listen carefully: this tiny double-helix molecule can only be seen with a very powerful electron microscope. But it has three billion parts! Can you imagine how small these parts are? In fact, we only see the form of DNA discovered by Watson and Crick in England in 1953 based on X-ray data obtained by Rosalind Franklin.<…>

It took another 43 years before scientists were able to draw the structure of the entire DNA molecule in February 2001.<…>

Then the real work began, because the study of the structure showed only the general chemical structure of DNA. Imagine these are letters in a giant book. Now scientists knew every letter, but had no idea what kind of language it was! They needed to figure out the language in order to see the whole picture, to understand the words in the book and to find genes. It was then that they discovered that things were taking an unexpected turn. The best scientists and the most powerful computers in the country have struggled to find the codes that were expected to be seen in the chemical structure of the human genome.

We think in three dimensions. There is nothing you can do about it. This is our reality, and we cannot hope that we will avoid it. But it often prevents us from seeing the big picture. Science is now beginning to loudly declare that the universe and everything in it are multidimensional. So sooner or later we will have to invent mathematics that could fit such a model, as well as discover new physical laws and learn to think more broadly. In the meantime, scientists make very serious assumptions that the human genome is linear and the entire human genetic structure is contained in three billion "letters" of DNA. But this is not the case.<…>

Contrary to all logic, scientists could not find the codes, although they absolutely knew that they were there. They used the best modern computers, capable of breaking codes, in search of the symmetry that any language generates. And they found her. The find must have blown them away, and at the same time threw them the greatest biological mystery of the century.

Of the entire chemical structure of the most complex human genome, only 4% carry a code! Only the protein-coding DNA contains a clear code for the production of genes, and its presence there was quite obvious. It is so three-dimensional that you could literally see the start and stop marks in the gene sequence! Like modern computer codes, chemistry adjusted itself to our expectations, but only a small part of the Human genome was involved in the production of 23,000 genes in the human body. Everything else was there as if "for nothing."

Let me give you an analogy for such frustration. A flying saucer appears above us. It does amazing tricks - it hovers in the air, ignores gravity and behaves as we would expect from a flying saucer. Then she lands. We approach and understand that there is no one inside. Apparently, this is just a robot probe sent to Earth. Suddenly, the top of the plate rises, inviting the best scientists to look at how it works. We are very excited, realizing that we are close to solving some mysteries. We are about to discover new physics! We start looking for the engine, and a surprise awaits us: the engine compartment is filled to the brim with some kind of debris! No, perhaps it is more like foam granules, which are poured into packages with dishes as filler. These granules are clearly connected to each other, some of them even move, but they do nothing. No structure is visible in this material; it just fills the space. You dig up the "filler" with a shovel, throw the pellets out bucket by bucket, and finally find a tiny shiny object with some wires coming out of it. Obviously, this object is the engine, the heart of the ship. So Littel! Fits in the palm of your hand and controls everything! You are trying to run it. And then it turns out that without the "filler" the flying saucer does not want to fly. You put the granules back - and the saucer flies again! So it turns out that the "filler" does something after all? Or not? How can filler do anything? The error is understandable. We expected to see the engine - something sparkling, wired, linear and complete in structure - and we found it. What seemed to us as "filler", "packaging", we immediately threw away. Do you understand what the mistake is and what is the metaphor?

It turned out to be an anecdote. DNA is made up of three billion parts, most of which do nothing! Only four tiny percent do all the work! What nonsense! We know that nature is very rational. We can observe the evolution of living beings even during one of our lives, and we understand how expedient nature is. If fish find themselves trapped in an underground cave, then after ten years or so, their eyes disappear. Nature crosses out everything that is not necessary, and we see it everywhere. However, 96% of our DNA is just junk! Are we, the pinnacle of evolution, 96% garbage? This contradicts everything that we observe in nature, but this is exactly what happened.. Parts of DNA that do not code for protein have been declared "junk" even by the best minds. The non-protein coding regions were random, had no symmetry, no apparent target, and seemed useless.

Meet the non-3D thinkers

Let's try to approach our flying saucer with new ideas. Perhaps this seemingly chaotic "filler" is not at all part of the engine. Maybe it's a map! After all, the ship must know where it is headed. Then you think that it is some other type of card. Maybe in a quantum state, a ship needs a quantum map? What could it be? That there must be something that would allow him to exist in a linear world, but could give instructions to a tiny shiny engine to control the ship in three dimensions. In this case, we know that the ship has multidimensional characteristics because it can control its mass. We also know from our quantum physics that when we move into a multidimensional world, time and space as we know them cease to exist. These two concepts are replaced by potentials and a completely non-linear and confusing abundance of "event rules", which in the third dimension make very little sense to us. Thus, the strange and chaotic "filler" is not disordered at all - it just looks so to 3D creatures (you, me, and scientists)! It must be exactly where it is so that the engine has the ability to move the ship. We can say that "filler" is an engine modifier, and it must be present in significant quantities because it has a lot to “tell” the engine about how to move in a multidimensional way.

For years we have put up with the phrase "junk DNA." However, suddenly we began to think differently. "What if,- someone said, - there is no code in the garbage, because it shouldn't be there? What if that 96% of DNA somehow contains nonlinear quantum rules that govern the coded parts? " This is a completely new and controversial concept - but at least it goes beyond limited 3D logic!

Here is a report from the University of California, San Diego on July 13, 2007, broadcast on CBS News:

The so-called "junk DNA" - 96% of the human genome, seemingly useless - may play a more important role than its name suggests, American scientists argue. An international team of scientists have found that some of the junk DNA can serve as a framework to help organize the remaining 4% properly. "Some of the junk DNA can be considered punctuation marks, commas and periods that help to understand the meaning of the encoded regions of the genome," says co-author of this theory Victoria Lunyak, a research fellow at KUSD.

I think we are starting to see the multidimensional aspect of our biology, which is obviously huge! What if 96% of our DNA is a set of instructions for the other 4%? Then this part is not chaotic at all, it just seems to be like that to 3D thinking. Can punctuation marks appear as letters of the alphabet? No. Then what is it? Are they symmetrical? Are they pronounced somehow? No. If you look at the punctuation marks in our language, it may seem that they are in random order. If you, for example, looked at this page, knowing nothing about the language and its structure, then punctuation marks would seem meaningless to you. They are not symmetrical. If you run this page through a supercomputer, it will eventually figure out the words and their likely meanings, but not the punctuation marks.

Think about it. The engine we were looking for in the flying saucer was actually there. This proportion of 4%, which encodes a protein, serves as a "brilliant motor". And "garbage" is 96%, similar to granular filler. Now we suspect that something completely different is happening, and 96% may actually be a multidimensional constructor pattern, and 4% just an engine that obeys its design.

Doesn't this ratio seem interesting to you? According to the teachings of Kryon, only 8% of the DNA is in the third dimension, and 92% of the DNA governs the rest.

Perhaps we are witnessing the gradual recognition of the fact that DNA functions significantly different from our expectations and is something more complex than just a code that can be read chemically.

Excerpts from Kryon & Lee Carroll's Twelve Layers of DNA

The DNA molecule is a classified source of life data

The progress of science leaves no doubt that living beings have an extremely complex structure and too perfect organization, the emergence of which cannot be considered an accident. This testifies to the fact that living beings were created by the Almighty Creator, who possesses the highest knowledge. Recently, for example, with the explanation of the perfect structure of the human gene, which became a significant task of the Human Genome Project, the unique creation of God once again appeared on public display.

From the United States to China, scientists from all over the world have been trying for about a decade to decipher the 3 billion chemical letters in the DNA molecule and establish their sequence. As a result, 85% of the data contained in the DNA molecule of human beings could be sequenced. While this development is exciting and important, Dr. Francis Collins, who leads the Human Genome Project, argues that only the first step has been taken at this point in the study of the structure of the DNA molecule and in decoding the information.

In order to understand why it takes so long to decipher this information, we must understand the nature of the information stored in the structure of the DNA molecule.

The secret structure of the DNA molecule

In the production of a technological product or in the management of a plant, the most used tools are experience and the accumulation of knowledge acquired over many centuries.

How can a chain invisible to the eye, consisting of atoms assembled in the form of tracks, with a size of one billionth of a millimeter, have such a capacity of information and memory?

The following is added to this question: if each of the 100 trillion cells in your body knows one million pages of information by heart, how many encyclopedic pages can you, as an intelligent and conscientious person, memorize in your entire life? Most importantly, the cell uses this information flawlessly, in a highly planned and consistent way, in the right places, and never makes mistakes. Even before a person is born into the world, his cells have already begun the process of his creation.

For a detailed understanding of the essence of the PCR diagnostic method, it is necessary to make a short excursion into the school course in biology.

We also know from school textbooks that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a universal carrier of genetic information and hereditary traits in all organisms existing on Earth. The only exceptions are some microorganisms, for example, viruses - the universal carrier of genetic information for them is RNA - single-stranded ribonucleic acid.

DNA molecule structure

The discovery of the DNA molecule happened in 1953. Francis Crick and James Watson discovered the structure of the double helix of DNA, and their work was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize.

DNA is a double strand twisted into a helix. Each strand consists of "building blocks" - of sequentially connected nucleotides. Each DNA nucleotide contains one of four nitrogenous bases - guanine (G), adenine (A) (purines), thymine (T) and cytosine (C) (pyrimidines), bound to deoxyribose, to the latter, in turn, a phosphate group is attached ... Adjacent nucleotides are interconnected in a chain by a phosphodiester bond formed by 3'-hydroxyl (3'-OH) and 5'-phosphate groups (5'-PO3). This property determines the presence of polarity in DNA, that is, the opposite direction, namely the 5'- and 3'-ends: the 5'-end of one strand corresponds to the 3'-end of the second strand.

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DNA structure

The primary structure of DNA is the linear sequence of DNA nucleotides in a chain. The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA strand is written in the form of a DNA letter formula: for example - AGTCATGCCAG, the recording is carried out from the 5'- to 3'-end of the DNA strand.

The secondary structure of DNA is formed due to the interactions of nucleotides (mostly nitrogenous bases) with each other, hydrogen bonds. A classic example of the secondary structure of DNA is the DNA double helix. The DNA double helix is ​​the most common form of DNA in nature, consisting of two polynucleotide DNA strands. The construction of each new DNA strand is carried out according to the principle of complementarity, i.e., each nitrogenous base of one DNA strand corresponds to a strictly defined base of the other strand: in a complementary pair, opposite A is T, and opposite G is C, etc.

DNA synthesis. Replication

A unique property of DNA is its ability to duplicate (replicate). In nature, DNA replication occurs as follows: with the help of special enzymes (gyrases), which serve as a catalyst (substances that accelerate the reaction), the spiral unweaving occurs in the cell in the area where replication should take place (DNA duplication). Further, the hydrogen bonds that bind the threads are broken and the threads diverge.

In the construction of a new chain, a special enzyme, DNA polymerase, acts as an active "builder". For DNA duplication, a stratum block or "foundation" is also required, which is a small double-stranded DNA fragment. This starting block, or rather the complementary portion of the parental DNA chain, interacts with the primer — a single-stranded fragment of 20-30 nucleotides. Replication or cloning of DNA occurs simultaneously on both strands. From one DNA molecule, two DNA molecules are formed, in which one strand is from the parent DNA molecule, and the second, daughter, is newly synthesized.

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Thus, the process of DNA replication (doubling) includes three main stages:

• Unweaving of the DNA helix and strand separation
• Attaching primers
• Formation of a new DNA strand of a daughter strand

At the heart of the PCR analysis is the principle of DNA replication - DNA synthesis, which modern scientists have managed to recreate artificially: in the laboratory, doctors cause DNA to duplicate, but not the entire DNA chain, but its small fragment.

DNA functions

A human DNA molecule is a carrier of genetic information, which is recorded as a sequence of nucleotides using the genetic code. As a result of the DNA replication described above, DNA genes are transmitted from generation to generation.

Changes in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA (mutations) can lead to genetic disorders in the body.

In the first two decades after Watson and Crick discovered the DNA double helix, mankind was able to understand a lot about the molecular nature of life. The famous "central dogma" was formulated, according to which genetic information in a cell is transmitted only in one direction: from DNA to protein. The genetic code was completely decoded, which allows the cell to translate the texts of nucleic acids into the texts of proteins, that is, the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA - in the sequence of amino acid residues in proteins. These were all tremendous accomplishments.

The problem, however, was that, although molecular biologists talked about these texts all the time, no one knew the texts themselves. There was no way to decode genes. Or, in other words, there was no method for determining the sequence of nucleotides in DNA.

By that time, they already knew how to do this for proteins - the method of reading their sequence was developed in the early 1950s, even before the discovery of the double helix. In addition, scientists already knew a little bit about reading short RNA sequences. But DNA sequences could not be read at all. This created a colossal gap in the real understanding of the molecular foundations of life and held back both the development of biotechnology, which, in fact, did not exist yet, and the medical application of this knowledge.

It even began to seem that this was too difficult a task and it would not be possible to solve it - all attempts were unsuccessful.

But in the mid-70s of the 20th century, a breakthrough occurred. The DNA sequencing method was developed by the British chemist Frederick Senger.

Senger is a great man. He is the only one in the history of science who has received two Nobel Prizes in chemistry. Nobel forbade giving the same person a prize twice in the same area. By that time, Sanger had already received an award just for the development of a method for reading amino acid sequences in proteins. And when he developed a method for reading the DNA sequence, the Nobel committee found itself in a very difficult position: he had to either not give a person a prize for an outstanding discovery, or break the will of Nobel. We decided to break the will. And this is the only case in the field of chemistry.

How are DNA sequences read now? Since then, tremendous progress has been made in this direction, and it is based on the Sanger breakout. A DNA sequence is a colossal length of text written with just four "letters" - four chemical compounds: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). In every cell we have a genome that consists of three billion nucleotides, three billion of these "letters".

First of all, DNA is cut into fragments using special enzymes called restriction enzymes. Restriction endonucleases recognize short DNA sequences containing approximately 6 to 8 nucleotides, and only at this point are the DNA double helix cut in a certain way. The discovery of these "scissors" was another breakthrough in the early 1970s.

After cutting the DNA, the task comes down to determining the sequence of a short piece - it can contain a hundred or several hundred links. And here the Senger method is used.

To the resulting fragment of the molecule, special adapters are added from both ends, because the restriction enzyme leaves uneven ends. The adapter has a certain sequence, which we choose ourselves, since it is synthetic. After adding the adapter, each fragment will receive certain - known - sequences at the ends. We can use these sequences in order to add synthetic primers (nucleic acid fragments) to a fragment of a molecule, starting from which a complementary strand will be synthesized according to the available DNA sequence.

Senger's idea was that in the process of such synthesis, it is necessary to add to the mixture of normal precursors of nucleotides, called nucleoside triphosphates, specially modified nucleoside triphosphates that cannot be extended.

As a result, the synthesis stops at the place of this or that "letter". Thus, we get molecules with a set of lengths, which tells us exactly where this or that "letter" is embedded. And then it only remains to separate these molecules by length, which is done using gel electrophoresis.

A special gel is being prepared, that is, a polymer mesh, to which a constant electric field is applied. Under the influence of an electric field, negatively charged DNA molecules crawl through the polymer network. And the longer the molecule, the slower it moves in the gel. This allows us to divide a mixture of molecules according to their lengths, and where there is the nucleotide that we are currently studying, we will see the stop of synthesis, that is, the lengths of the fragments when we divide them according to the length corresponding to the number of these nucleotides.

This wonderful, ingenious method, thanks to which we were able to sequence the human genome, was invented by Senger. The first human genome was read at the very beginning of our century. Then it cost about three billion dollars. Then the method was modified, robotic, and today the sequence determination procedure costs incomparably less. The price is close to $ 1000 for decoding the DNA of a specific person.

The absolutely fantastic development of DNA sequencing methods has created incredible progress both in the field of understanding the molecular nature of life, and in the field of biotechnological and medical applications.