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Theories of cultural anthropology. Anthropological concept The general goal of anthropology is to study the origin and historical existence of man

* This work is not a scientific work, is not a final qualifying work and is the result of processing, structuring and formatting the collected information intended for use as a source of material for self-preparation of educational work.

Table of contents

Introduction

Basic educational literature throughout the course

Additional educational literature throughout the course

Internet resources

1.1. Historical view of the subject of anthropology

1.2. Actual problems of modern anthropology

4.2. Methods for determining the age of paleontological material

4.3. Evolutionary events of the Cenozoic era

4.4. Paleolithic and its subdivisions

4.5. Brief description of anthropogenesis

Anthropology is a set of scientific disciplines dealing with the study of man, his origin, development, existence in natural (natural) and cultural (artificial) environments.

In short, the subject of anthropological research is man.

1) as a general science of man, combining knowledge of various natural sciences and humanities;

2) as a science that studies human biological diversity.

Soviet anthropology, according to the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia, consisted of the following main sections: human morphology, the doctrine of anthropogenesis and race.

Human morphology is subdivided into somatology and merology. Somatology studies the patterns of individual variability of the human body as a whole, sexual dimorphism in the structure of the body, age-related changes in size and proportions from the embryonic period to old age, the influence of various biological and social conditions on the structure of the body, human constitution. This section is most closely related to medicine and is essential for establishing the norms of physical development and growth rates, for gerontology, etc.

Merology studies variations in individual parts of the body. Comparative anatomical studies included in merology are devoted to elucidating the similarities and differences between each organ of the body and each system of human organs in comparison with other vertebrates, mainly mammals and, to a greater extent, with primates. As a result of these studies, the family ties of man with other creatures and his place in the animal world are being clarified. Paleoanthropology studies the bone remains of fossils of humans and close relatives of humans - the great apes. Comparative anatomy and paleoanthropology, as well as embryology, serve to clarify the problem of the origin of man and his evolution, as a result of which they are included in the doctrine of anthropogenesis, which is closely related to philosophy, as well as to Paleolithic archeology, Pleistocene geology, physiology of higher nervous activity of humans and primates, psychology, etc. zoopsychology, etc. This section of Anthropology examines such issues as the place of man in the system of the animal world, his relation as a zoological species to other primates, the restoration of the path along which the development of higher primates went, the study of the role of labor in the origin of man, the identification of stages in the process of human evolution, the study of the conditions and reasons for the formation of a modern man.

Racial studies - the branch of Anthropology that studies the human races, sometimes not quite accurately called "ethnic" Anthropology; the latter refers, strictly speaking, only to the study of the racial composition of individual ethnic groups, that is, tribes, peoples, nations, and the origin of these communities. In addition to these problems, racial studies also study the classification of races, the history of their formation and such factors of their occurrence as selective processes, isolation, mixing and migration, the influence of climatic conditions and, in general, the geographic environment on racial characteristics. In that part of racial research that is aimed at the study of ethnogenesis, Anthropology conducts research in conjunction with linguistics, history, and archeology. In studying the driving forces of race formation, anthropology comes into close contact with genetics, physiology, zoogeography, climatology, and the general theory of speciation. The study of races in Anthropology has implications for the solution of many problems. It is important for solving the question of the ancestral home of a modern human species, using anthropological material as a historical source, highlighting the problems of taxonomy, mainly small systematic units, understanding the laws of population genetics (see Population genetics), clarifying some issues of honey. geography. Discipline is essential in the scientific underpinning of the fight against racism.

Biological anthropology studies the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties - anthropological characteristics.

The subject of biological (or physical) anthropology is the diversity of human biological characteristics in time and space. The task of biological anthropology is to identify and scientifically describe the variability (polymorphism) of a number of biological characteristics of a person and systems of these (anthropological) characteristics, as well as to identify the reasons for this diversity.

The levels of study of biological anthropology correspond to almost all levels of human organization.

Physical anthropology has several main sections - areas of research in human biology. We can talk about historical anthropology, which studies the history and prehistory of human diversity, and geographic anthropology, which studies the geographical variability of a person.

History of anthropology

As an independent scientific discipline physical anthropology took shape in the second half of the 19th century. The first scientific anthropological societies were established practically simultaneously in the countries of Western Europe and in Russia. The first special anthropological works began to be published. The founders of scientific anthropology are P. Brock, P. Topinar, K. Baer, A. Bogdanov, D. Anuchin.

The development of general and particular anthropological methods belongs to the period of the formation of physical anthropology, specific terminology and the very principles of research are formed, there is an accumulation and systematization of materials related to issues of origin, ethnic history, and the racial diversity of man as a biological species.

Russian anthropological science by the beginning of the XX century. was an independent discipline and was based on a continuous scientific tradition of an integrated approach to human research.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN RUSSIA

Anthropology in Russia has become a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The official year of the “birth” of anthropology in Russia is considered to be 1864, when, on the initiative of the first Russian anthropologist A. Bogdanov (1834–1896), the Anthropological Department of the Society of Natural Science Lovers (later renamed the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography - OLEAE) was organized. The origins of anthropological research in Russia are associated with the names of V. Tatishchev, G. Miller and other participants and leaders of various expeditions (to Siberia, to the north, Alaska, etc.), accumulating anthropological characteristics of various peoples of the Russian Empire during the 18th – 19th centuries.

One of the greatest naturalists of the 19th century, the founder of modern embryology, an outstanding geographer and traveler, K. Baer (1792–1876) is also known as one of the greatest anthropologists of his time, as the organizer of anthropological and ethnographic research in Russia. In his work "On the Origin and Distribution of Human Tribes" (1822), a view is developed about the origin of mankind from a common "root", that the differences between human races developed after their resettlement from a common center, under the influence of various natural conditions in their zones of habitation ...

The works of N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are of great importance. As a zoologist by profession, he glorified Russian science not so much by his work in this area as by his research on the ethnography and anthropology of the peoples of New Guinea and other regions of the South Pacific.

The development of Russian anthropology in the 60s-70s. XIX century. called the "Bogdanov period". Professor of Moscow University A. Bogdanov was the initiator and organizer of the Society of Natural Science Lovers.

The most important task of the Society was to promote the development of natural science and the dissemination of natural history knowledge. The Anthropological Department's program of work included anthropological, ethnographic and archaeological research, which reflected the views of that time on anthropology as a complex science of the physical type of man and his culture.

D. Anuchin made a great contribution to the development of Russian anthropology.

The first major work of D. Anuchin (1874) was devoted to anthropomorphic apes and was a very valuable summary on the comparative anatomy of higher apes. A characteristic feature of all D. Anuchin's activities was the desire to popularize science, while maintaining all the accuracy and rigor of scientific research. The beginning of the "Soviet period" of Russian anthropology is also associated with the activities of D. Anuchin.

3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCIPLINE COURSE "ANTHROPOLOGY"

The general goal of anthropology is the study of the origin and historical existence of man.

Anthropology regards man as a kind of social animal, on the one hand, having powerful biological roots in the past, on the other, having received great differences from animals in the course of evolution, associated, first of all, with the strongly expressed social character of the human psyche.

Anthropological knowledge is necessary for students of psychological and pedagogical, medical and social specialties and for all specialists working in the field of human studies. They make it possible to deepen knowledge about the biological essence of man and at the same time emphasize his features that distinguish man from the system of the animal world - first of all, his spirituality, mental activity, social qualities, cultural aspects of his life, etc.

The task of anthropology is to trace the process of interaction of biological laws of development and social laws in human history, to assess the degree of influence of natural and social factors; to study the polymorphism of human types, due to gender, age, physique (constitution), environmental conditions of habitation, etc .; trace the patterns and mechanisms of human interaction with his social and natural environment in a specific cultural system.

Students should study anthropogenesis, its natural and social nature, the relationship and contradictions of natural and social factors in the process of human evolution; learn the basics of constitutional and age-related anthropology and their role in social and socio-medical work; to master the concepts of race genesis, ethnogenesis and know the genetic problems of modern human populations; to know the basic needs, interests and values of a person, his psychophysical capabilities and connection with social activity, the system “person - personality - individuality” in its social development, as well as possible deviations, the basic concepts of deviant development, its social and natural factors should be mastered, anthropological foundations of social and socio-medical work.

4.PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical anthropology is a biological science about the structure of the human body, about the diversity of its forms.

The diversity of a person in time and space is made up of the manifestations of a large number of very different traits and signs. An anthropological feature is any feature that has a specific state (variant), by which a similarity or difference between individuals is found.

Special sections of anthropology are devoted to the study of genetic, molecular, physiological systems of characters, morphology is investigated at the level of organs and their systems, at the level of the individual. The variability of these characteristics is investigated at the supra-individual - population level.

The tasks of physical anthropology are the scientific description of the biological diversity of modern humans and the interpretation of the reasons for this diversity.

Anthropological research methods:

a) morphological;

b) genetic (especially population genetics);

c) demographic (the relationship between demography and population genetics);

d) physiological and morphophysiological (ecology and human adaptation);

e) psychological and neuropsychological (anthropology and the problem of the emergence of speech and thinking; racial psychology);

f) ethnological (primatology and the emergence of human society and family);

g) mathematical (biological statistics and its role for all sections of anthropology).

Anthropology examines the historical and geographical aspects of the variability of human biological properties (anthropological characteristics). In terms of its content, it belongs rather to the range of historical disciplines, and in methodological terms, it is unambiguously related to the field of biology.

Also, historically, there has been a division of physical anthropology into three relatively independent areas of research:

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) is an area that includes a wide range of issues related to the biological aspects of human origin. It is human morphology, viewed in terms of time as measured by a geological scale;

Racial studies and ethnic anthropology, which study the similarities and differences between associations of human populations of different orders. In fact, this is the same morphology, but considered on the scale of historical time and space, that is, on the entire surface of the globe inhabited by man;

Morphology proper, which studies variations in the structure of individual human organs and their systems, age-related variability of the human body, its physical development and constitution.

5.POPULATION AND ITS TYPES

A population (literally - population) is understood as an isolated set of individuals of the same species, characterized by a common origin, habitat and forming an integral genetic system.

According to a more detailed interpretation, a population is a minimal and at the same time rather numerous self-reproducing group of one species, inhabiting a certain space over an evolutionarily long period of time. This group forms an independent genetic system and its own ecological hyperspace. Finally, this group for a large number of generations turns out to be isolated from other similar groups of individuals (individuals).

The main criteria for the population are:

Habitat unity or geographic location (range);

Unity of origin of the group;

The relative isolation of this group from other similar groups (the presence of interpopulation barriers);

Free crossing within a group and adherence to the principle of panmixia, i.e., the equiprobability of meeting all existing genotypes within the range (no significant intrapopulation barriers).

The ability to maintain for a number of generations such a number that is sufficient for self-reproduction of the group.

All of the above biological definitions turn out to be equally valid in relation to humans. But since anthropology has a twofold direction - biological and historical, two important consequences can be derived from the formulations presented:

The consequence is biological: individuals belonging to a population should be characterized by somewhat greater similarity with each other than with individuals belonging to other similar groups. The degree of this similarity is determined by the unity of origin and territory occupied, the relative isolation of the population and the time of this isolation;

Historical consequence: the human population is a special category of populations with its own characteristics. After all, this is a community of people, and population history is nothing more than the “fate” of a separate human community, which has its own traditions, social organization and cultural specifics. The overwhelming majority of populations have a unique, rather complex and still not developed hierarchical structure, subdividing into a number of natural smaller units and at the same time entering into larger population systems (including ethnoterritorial communities, racial groups, etc.) ...

6. ANTHROPOGENESIS: BASIC THEORIES

Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man, genesis - development) - the process of development of a modern man, human paleontology; a science that studies the origin of man, the process of his development.

The complex of approaches to the study of the past of mankind includes:

1) biological sciences:

Human biology - morphology, physiology, cerebrology, human paleontology;

Primatology - primate paleontology;

Paleontology - vertebrate paleontology, palynology;

General biology - embryology, genetics, molecular biology, comparative anatomy.

2) physical sciences:

Geology - geomorphology, geophysics, stratigraphy, geochronology;

Taphonomy (the science of the burial of fossil remains);

Dating methods - decay of radioactive elements, radiocarbon, thermoluminescent, indirect dating methods;

3) social sciences:

Archeology - Paleolithic archeology, archeology of later times;

Ethnoarcheology, Comparative Ethnology;

Psychology.

The number of theories about the origin of man is huge, but the main ones are two - the theory of evolutionism (which arose on the basis of the theory of Darwin and Wallace) and creationism (which arose on the basis of the Bible).

For about a century and a half, discussions have not subsided between the supporters of these two different theories in biology and natural science.

According to evolutionary theory, man descended from ape. The place of man in the order of modern primates is as follows:

1) a suborder of semi-monkeys: sections of lemuromorphic, lorimorphic, tarsiimorphic;

2) suborder of anthropoids:

a) section of broad-nosed monkeys: a family of marmosets and capuchin-like;

b) section of narrow-nosed monkeys:

Superfamily of cercopithecoids, family of monkeys (lower narrow-nosed): subfamily of monkeys and thin-bodied;

Superfamily of hominoids (higher narrow-nosed):

Family of gibbon-like (gibbons, siamangs);

The pongid family. Orangutan. African pongids (gorilla and chimpanzee) as the closest human relatives;

The hominid family. Man is his only modern representative.

7. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 1

Currently, the following main stages of human evolution are distinguished: Driopithecus - Ramapithecus - Australopithecus - Homo sapiens - Homo erectus - Neanderthal man (paleoanthropus) - Neoanthropus (this is already a modern man, homo sapiens).

Driopithecus appeared 17-18 million years ago and became extinct about 8 million years ago, lived in tropical forests. These are early great apes that probably appeared in Africa and came to Europe during the drying up of the prehistoric sea of Tethys. Groups of these monkeys climbed trees and ate their fruits, since their molars, covered with a thin layer of enamel, were not suitable for chewing rough food. Perhaps the distant ancestor of man was Ramapithecus (Rama is the hero of the Indian epic). It is assumed that Ramapithecus appeared 14 million years ago and became extinct about 9 million years ago. Their existence became known from the fragments of the jaw found in the Sivalik mountains in India. Whether these creatures were erect is still impossible to establish.

The Australopithecines, who inhabited Africa 1.5–5.5 million years ago, were the link between the animal kingdom and the first people. Australopithecus did not have such natural defense organs as powerful jaws, fangs and sharp claws, and were inferior in physical strength to large animals. The use of natural objects as weapons for defense and attack allowed the Australopithecines to defend themselves from enemies.

In the 60-70s. XX century. in Africa, the remains of creatures were found, the volume of the cranial cavity of which was 650 cm3 (much less than that of humans). The most primitive tools made of pebbles were found in the immediate vicinity of the find. Scientists suggested that this creature can be attributed to the genus Homo, and gave him the name Homo habilis - a man of skill, emphasizing his ability to make primitive tools. Judging by the found remains dating back 2-1.5 million years ago, a skilled man existed for more than half a million years, slowly evolved until he acquired a significant resemblance to a bipedal man.

One of the most remarkable was the find of the first Pithecanthropus, or Homo erektus, discovered by the Dutch scientist E. Dubois in 1881. Homo erectus existed from about 1.6 million to 200 thousand years ago.

The earliest people have similar features: a massive jaw with a sloping chin protrudes strongly forward, there is an supraorbital ridge on a low sloping forehead, the height of the skull is small compared to that of a modern person, but the brain volume varies within 800-1400 cm3. Along with obtaining plant food, Pithecanthropus were engaged in hunting, as evidenced by the finds in their places of life of the bones of small rodents, deer, bears, wild horses, and buffaloes.

8. MAIN STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION: PART 2

The most ancient people were replaced by ancient people - Neanderthals (according to the place of their first find in the valley of the Neander River, Germany).

Neanderthals lived in the Ice Age from 200 to 30 thousand years ago. The widespread occurrence of ancient people not only in areas with a warm favorable climate, but also in the harsh conditions of iced Europe indicates their significant the most ancient people progress: the ancient people were able not only to maintain, but also to make fire, already mastered speech, the volume of their brain is equal to the volume of the brain of a modern person, the development of thinking is evidenced by the tools of their labor, which were quite diverse in form and served for a variety of purposes - hunting for animals, butchering carcasses, building a dwelling.

Revealed the emergence of elementary social relationships among Neanderthals: caring for the wounded or sick. Burials are encountered for the first time among Neanderthals.

Collective action already played a decisive role in the primitive herd of ancient people. In the struggle for existence, those groups won that successfully hunted and better provided themselves with food, took care of each other, achieved lower mortality among children and adults, and better overcome difficult living conditions. The ability to make tools, articulate speech, the ability to learn - these qualities turned out to be useful for the team as a whole. Natural selection ensured the further progressive development of many traits. As a result, the biological organization of ancient people improved. But the influence of social factors on the development of Neanderthals grew stronger and stronger.

The emergence of people of the modern physical type (Homo sapiens), who replaced the ancient people, occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago.

Fossil people of the modern type possessed all the complex of basic physical features that our contemporaries also have.

9.EVOLUTION AND THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

An important and still unresolved issue in science is the reconciliation of evolution and the second law of thermodynamics. Is it possible to reconcile the theory of universal evolution from inanimate matter to spontaneous generation of living matter and further through the gradual development of the simplest unicellular organisms into complex multicellular organisms and, ultimately, into a person, in which there is not only biological, but also spiritual life, to be consistent with the second law of thermodynamics, which is so universal that it is called the law of growth of entropy (disorder), which operates in all closed systems, including the entire Universe?

So far, no one has succeeded in solving this fundamental problem. The simultaneous existence of universal evolution and the law of entropy growth as universal laws of the material Universe (as a closed system) is impossible, since they are incompatible.

At first glance, it is possible and natural to assume that macroevolution can take place locally and temporarily (on Earth). A number of current evolutionists believe that the conflict between evolution and entropy is removed by the fact that the Earth is an open system and the energy coming from the Sun is quite enough to stimulate universal evolution over a huge geological time. But this assumption ignores the obvious fact that the inflow of thermal energy into an open system directly leads to an increase in entropy (and, consequently, to a decrease in functional information) in this system. And in order to prevent a huge increase in entropy due to the influx of a large amount of thermal solar energy into the terrestrial biosphere, the excess of which can only destroy, and not build organized systems, it is necessary to introduce additional hypotheses, for example, about such a biochemical information code that predetermines the course of the hypothetical macroevolution of the terrestrial biosphere, and about such a global, most complex conversion mechanism for converting incoming energy into work on the spontaneous generation of the simplest reproducing cells and further movement from such cells to complex organic organisms that are still unknown to science.

10.BACKGROUND OF EVOLUTIONISM AND CREATIONISM

Among the initial premises of the doctrine of evolutionism are the following:

1) the hypothesis of universal evolution, or macroevolution (from inanimate matter to living matter). - Nothing confirmed;

2) spontaneous generation of living in non-living. - Nothing confirmed;

3) such spontaneous generation happened only once. - Nothing confirmed;

4) unicellular organisms gradually developed into multicellular organisms. - Nothing confirmed;

5) there should be many transitional forms in the macro-evolutionary scheme (from fish to amphibians, from amphibians to reptiles, from reptiles to birds, from reptiles to mammals);

6) the similarity of living beings is a consequence of the "general law of evolution";

7) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology are considered as sufficient to explain the development from the simplest to highly developed forms (macroevolution);

8) geological processes are interpreted within very long time periods (geological evolutionary uniformitarianism). - Very controversial;

9) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of the gradual layering of rows of fossils.

The corresponding counter-premises of creationist doctrine are also faith-based, but have a self-consistent and factual explanation:

1) the whole Universe, the Earth, the living world and man were created by God in the order described in the Bible (Gen. 1). This provision is included in the basic premises of biblical theism;

2) God created according to a reasonable plan both unicellular and multicellular organisms and in general all types of organisms of flora and fauna, as well as the crown of creation - man;

3) the creation of living beings happened once, since they can further reproduce themselves;

4) evolutionary factors explainable from the point of view of biology (natural selection, spontaneous mutations) change only the existing basic types (microevolution), but cannot violate their boundaries;

5) the similarity of living beings is explained by the unified plan of the Creator;

6) geological processes are interpreted within short time periods (catastrophe theory);

7) the process of deposition of fossil remains of living organisms occurs within the framework of a catastrophic model of origin.

The fundamental difference between the doctrines of creationism and evolutionism lies in the difference in worldview premises: what is the basis of life - a reasonable plan or blind chance? These different premises of both doctrines are equally unobservable and cannot be verified in scientific laboratories.

11. CONSTITUTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS

The general constitution is understood as an integral characteristic of the human body, its “total” property to react in a certain way to environmental influences, without violating the connection between individual characteristics of the organism as a whole. This is a qualitative characteristic of all the individual characteristics of the subject, genetically fixed and capable of changing in the process of growth and development under the influence of environmental factors.

A particular constitution is understood as individual morphological and (or) functional complexes of an organism, contributing to its prosperous existence. This concept includes habit ( appearance), somatic type, body type, features of the functioning of the humoral and endocrine systems, indicators of metabolic processes, etc.

Constitutional features are considered as a complex, that is, they are characterized by functional unity. This complex should include:

Morphological characteristics of the organism (physique);

Physiological indicators;

Mental properties of a person.

In anthropology, the most developed are particular morphological constitutions.

The work of a huge number of anthropologists, physicians and psychologists is devoted to the development of constitutional schemes. Among them are G. Viola, L. Manuvrier, K. Sego, I. Galant, V. Stefko and A. Ostrovsky, E. Kretschmer, V. Bunak, U Sheldon, B. Heath and L. Carter, V. Chtetsov, M Utkin and N. Lutovinov, V. Deryabin and others.

Constitutional classifications can be further divided into two groups:

Morphological, or somatological, schemes in which constitutional types are determined on the basis of external signs of the soma (body);

Functional diagrams, in which special attention is paid to the functional state of the body.

12. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEMES E. KRECHMER AND V. BUNAKA

E. Kretschmer believed that heredity is the only source of morphological diversity.

It should be noted that his views were the basis for the creation of most of the later classifications. The types allocated to them under different names can be recognized in many schemes, even if the principles of their construction are different. Obviously, this is a consequence of the reflection of the real diversity of people, noted by E. Kretschmer in the form of discrete types. However, this scheme is not without its drawbacks: it has a specific practical purpose - preliminary diagnosis of mental pathologies. E. Kretschmer identified three main constitutional types: leptosomal (or asthenic), pycnic and athletic.

A similar, but devoid of many of the shortcomings of the previous scheme, is the somatotypological classification developed by V. Bunak in 1941.

Its fundamental difference from E. Kretschmer's scheme is a rigid definition of the degree of importance of constitutional features. The scheme is built according to two coordinates of the physique - the degree of development of fat deposition and the degree of development of the muscles. Additional features are the shape of the chest, abdomen, and back. V. Bunak's scheme is intended to determine the normal constitution only in adult men and is not applicable to women; body length, bone component, as well as anthropological features of the head are not taken into account in it.

The combination of two coordinates allows us to consider three basic and four intermediate body types. Intermediate options combine the features of the main types. They were highlighted by V. Bunak, because in practice, very often, the severity of the characteristics underlying the scheme is not quite clear and the characteristics of different types are often combined with each other. The author singled out two more body types as indefinite, although, in fact, they are also intermediate.

13. CONSTITUTIONAL SCHEME V. DERYABINA

Having analyzed the entire spectrum of existing constitutional schemes (and there are much more of them than was considered), the Russian anthropologist V. Deryabin identified two general approaches to solving the problem of continuity and discreteness in constitutional science:

With an a priori approach, the author of the diagram, even before its creation, has his own idea of what body types are. Based on this, he constructs his typology, focusing on those features or their complexes that correspond to his a priori ideas about the patterns of morphological variability. This principle is used in the overwhelming majority of the constitutional schemes we have examined;

The a posteriori approach presupposes not a simple imposition of the scheme of individual morphological diversity on the objectively existing variability - the constitutional system itself is built on the basis of the fixed scale of variability, taking into account its regularities. With this approach, theoretically, the objective laws of morphological and functional relationships and the correlation of features will be better taken into account. The subjectivity of typology is also minimized. In this case, the apparatus of multidimensional mathematical statistics is used.

Based on measurements of 6,000 men and women aged 18 to 60 years, V. Deryabin identified three main vectors of somatic variability, which together represent a three-dimensional coordinate space:

The first axis describes the variability of the overall body size (overall dimensions of the skeleton) along the macro- and microsomial coordinates. One pole of it is people with small overall dimensions (microsomia); the other - individuals with large body sizes (macrosomia);

The second axis divides people according to the ratio of muscle and bone components (determining the shape of the locomotor apparatus) and has a variation from leptosomy (weakened development of the muscle component compared to the development of the skeleton) to brachisomy (inverse ratio of components);

The third axis describes the variability of the amount of subcutaneous fat deposition in different body segments and has two extreme manifestations - from hypoadiposity (weak fat deposition) to hyperadiposity (strong fat deposition). The “constitutional space” is open from all sides, so any person can be characterized with its help - all existing constitutional variability fits into it. Practical application is carried out by calculating 6-7 typological indicators using regression equations for 12-13 anthropological dimensions. Regression equations are presented for women and men. According to these indicators, the exact place of the individual in the three-dimensional space of the constitutional scheme is found.

14.ONTOGENESIS

Ontogenesis (from the Greek ontos - being and genesis - origin), or life cycle, is one of the key biological concepts. This is life before and after birth, it is a continuous process of individual growth and development of the organism, its age-related changes. The development of an organism should by no means be thought of as a simple increase in size. Human biological development is a complex morphogenetic event, it is the result of numerous metabolic processes, cell division, an increase in their size, the process of differentiation, the formation of tissues, organs and their systems.

The growth of any multicellular organism, starting with just one cell (zygote), can be divided into four major stages:

1) hyperplasia (cell division) - an increase in the number of cells as a result of successive mitoses;

2) hypertrophy (cell growth) - an increase in cell size as a result of water absorption, synthesis of protoplasm, etc.

3) determination and differentiation of cells; cells that have "chosen" a program for further development are called deterministic. In the process of this development, cells specialize to perform certain functions, that is, they differentiate into cell types;

4) morphogenesis - the end result of these processes is the formation of cellular systems - tissues, as well as organs and organ systems.

Without exception, all stages of development are associated with biochemical activity. Changes at the cellular level lead to changes in the shape, structure and function of cells, tissues, organs and, finally, the whole organism. Even if there are no obvious quantitative changes (growth itself), the body is constantly undergoing qualitative restructuring at all levels of organization - from genetic (DNA activity) to phenotypic (shape, structure and functions of organs, their systems and the organism as a whole). Thus, it is during the growth and development of the organism that a unique hereditary program is realized under the influence and control of various and always unique environmental factors. With the transformations taking place in the process of ontogenesis, the "emergence" of all types of variability of biological characteristics of a person is associated, including those that were discussed earlier.

The study of ontogenesis is a kind of key to understanding the phenomenon of human biological variability. Various aspects of this phenomenon are studied by embryology and developmental biology, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and genetics, medicine, pediatrics, age-related psychology and other disciplines.

15.FEATURES OF HUMAN ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

Human ontogenetic development can be characterized by a number of common features:

Continuity - the growth of individual organs and systems of the human body is not endless, it follows the so-called limited type. The final values of each trait are determined genetically, that is, there is a reaction rate;

Gradual and irreversible; the continuous process of development can be divided into conditional stages - periods, or stages, of growth. It is impossible to skip any of these stages, just as it is impossible to return exactly to those structural features that have already manifested themselves in the previous stages;

Cyclicity; although ontogeny is a continuous process, the rate of development (the rate of change in traits) can vary significantly over time. In humans, there are periods of activation and inhibition of growth. There is a cyclicality associated with the seasons of the year (for example, an increase in body length occurs mainly in the summer months, and weight in the fall), as well as daily and a number of others;

Heterochrony, or time diversity (the basis of allometricity) is the unequal rate of maturation of different body systems and different signs within one system. Naturally, at the first stages of ontogenesis, the most important, vital systems mature;

Sensitivity to endogenous and exogenous factors; growth rates are limited or intensified under the influence of a wide range of exogenous environmental factors. But their influence does not take the developmental processes beyond the boundaries of the broad reaction norm, determined hereditarily. Within these limits, the developmental process is held by endogenous regulatory mechanisms. In this regulation, a significant share belongs to the actual genetic control, realized at the level of the organism due to the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems (neuroendocrine regulation);

Sexual dimorphism is the clearest characteristic of human development, which manifests itself at all stages of his ontogenesis. Let us remind once again that the differences due to the “gender factor” are so significant that ignoring them in research practice negates the significance of even the most interesting and promising works. Another fundamental characteristic of ontogeny is the individuality of this process. The dynamics of the ontogenetic development of an individual person is unique.

16.STAGES OF ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT

It is logical to divide the process of ontogenetic development into two stages:

The period of prenatal development is the intrauterine stage that lasts from the moment the zygote is formed as a result of fertilization until the moment of birth;

Postnatal development is the earthly life of a person from birth to death.

The maximum activation of body length growth in the postnatal period is observed in the first months of life (approximately 21-25 cm per year). In the period from 1 to 4–5 years, the increase in body length gradually decreases (from 10 to 5.5 cm per year). From 5–8 years, a weak half-growth jump is sometimes noted. At the age of 1013 for girls and 13–15 years for boys, there is a pronounced acceleration of growth - a growth leap: the growth rate of body length is about 8–10 cm per year for boys and 7–9 cm per year for girls. A decrease in growth rates is recorded between these periods.

The maximum fetal growth rate is characteristic of the first four months of intrauterine development; body weight changes in the same way, with the difference that the maximum speed is observed more often at the 34th week.

The first two months of intrauterine development is the stage of embryogenesis, characterized by the processes of "regionalization" and histogenesis (differentiation of cells with the formation of specialized tissues). At the same time, due to differential cell growth and cell migration, parts of the body acquire certain outlines, structure and shape. This process - morphogenesis - actively goes up to adulthood and continues until old age. But its main results are visible already at the 8th week of intrauterine development. By this time, the embryo acquires the main characteristic features of a person.

By the time of birth (between 36 and 40 weeks), the growth rate of the fetus slows down, since by this time the uterine cavity is already completely filled. It is noteworthy that the growth of twins slows down even earlier - during the period when their total weight becomes equal to the weight of a single 36-week-old fetus. It is believed that if a genetically large baby develops in the uterus of a small woman, the mechanisms of growth retardation contribute to a successful birth, but this does not always happen. The weight and size of the newborn's body are largely determined by the external environment, which in this case is the mother's body.

Body length at birth averages about 50.0-53.3 cm for boys and 49.7-52.2 for girls. Immediately after birth, the rate of growth in body length increases again, especially in a genetically large child.

At present, the growth of the body in length slows down significantly in girls aged 16–17 years and in boys aged 18–19 years, and up to 60 years old, body length remains relatively stable. After about 60 years of age, there is a decrease in body length.

17.PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS

The most ancient periodizations of ontogeny date back to antiquity:

Pythagoras (6th century BC) distinguished four periods of human life: spring (from birth to 20 years), summer (20–40 years), autumn (40–60 years) and winter (60–80 years). These periods correspond to the formation, youth, the prime of life and their extinction. Hippocrates (V-IV centuries BC) divided the entire life path of a person from the moment of birth into 10 equal seven-year cycles-stages.

Russian statistician and demographer of the first half of the 19th century. A. Roslavsky-Petrovsky identified the following categories:

The younger generation - minors (from birth to 5 years old) and children (6-15 years old);

The flowering generation - young (16–30 years old), mature (30–45 years old) and elderly (45–60 years old);

The withering generation is old (61–75 years old) and durable (75–100 years old and older).

A similar scheme was proposed by the German physiologist M. Rubner (1854–1932), who divided postnatal ontogenesis into seven stages:

Infancy (from birth to 9 months);

Early childhood (10 months to 7 years);

Late childhood (from 8 to 13-14 years old);

Adolescence (from 14-15 to 19-21 years);

Maturity (41-50 years old);

Old age (50–70 years old);

Honorable old age (over 70 years old).

In pedagogy, the division of childhood and adolescence into infancy (up to 1 year), preschool age (1-3 years), preschool age (3-7 years), primary school age (from 7 to 11-12 years), middle school age is often used. age (up to 15 years) and senior school age (up to 17-18 years). In the systems of A. Nagorny, I. Arshavsky, V. Bunak, A. Tour, D. Gayer and other scientists, there are from 3 to 15 stages and periods.

The rates of development may differ among representatives of different generations of the same population of people, and epoch-making changes in the rates of development have repeatedly occurred in the history of mankind.

At least during the last one and a half centuries, up to the last 2–4 decades, a process of epochal acceleration of development was observed. Simply put, the children of each subsequent generation became larger and larger, matured earlier, and the changes achieved persisted at all ages. This amazing trend reached significant proportions and extended to many populations of modern humans (although not all), and the dynamics of the changes obtained was surprisingly similar for completely different population groups.

From about the second half of the XX century. At first, a slowdown in the rate of epochal growth was noted, and in the last one and a half to two decades, it is increasingly talking about the stabilization of the rate of development, that is, stopping the process at the achieved level and even about a new wave of retardation (deseleration).

18.CONSCIOUSNESS

The term "race" refers to a system of human populations characterized by similarities in a complex of certain hereditary biological traits (racial traits). It is important to emphasize that in the process of their emergence, these populations are associated with a specific geographical area and natural environment.

Race is a purely biological concept, as are the signs themselves, according to which racial classification is carried out.

Classic racial traits include physical traits - the color and shape of the eyes, lips, nose, hair, skin color, the overall structure of the face, and the shape of the head. People recognize each other mainly by facial features, which are also the most important racial characteristics. As auxiliary signs of body structure are used - height, weight, physique, proportions. However, the signs of the structure of the body are much more variable within any group than the signs of the structure of the head and, in addition, often strongly depend on environmental conditions, both natural and artificial, and therefore cannot be used in race studies as an independent source.

The most important properties of racial characteristics:

Physical signs;

Inherited traits;

Signs, the severity of which in the course of ontogeny depends little on environmental factors;

Signs associated with a certain area - distribution zone;

Signs that distinguish one territorial group of a person from another.

The unification of people on the basis of common self-awareness, self-determination is called an ethnos (ethnic group). It is also produced on the basis of language, culture, traditions, religion, economic and cultural type.

Determining their belonging to a particular group, people talk about nationality. One of the simplest forms of social ethnic organization of people is the tribe. A higher level of social organization is called nationalities (or people), which are united in a nation. Representatives of one tribe or other small ethnic group usually belong to the same anthropological type, since they are more or less related. Representatives of the same people can already differ markedly anthropologically, at the level of different small races, although, as a rule, within one large race.

The nation unites people already absolutely regardless of their racial affiliation, since it includes different peoples.

19.RACE CLASSIFICATIONS

There are many racial classifications. They differ in the principles of construction and the data used, the groups included and the underlying characteristics. Various racial schemes can be roughly divided into two large groups:

Created on the basis of a limited set of characteristics;

Open, the number of features in which can be arbitrarily changed.

Many of the early systems belong to the first variant of classifications. These are the schemes: J. Cuvier (1800), who divided people into three races according to skin color;

P. Topinard (1885), who also distinguished three races, but determined, in addition to pigmentation, the width of the nose;

A. Retzius (1844), four races of which differed in the combination of chronological characteristics. One of the most developed schemes of this type is the classification of races, created by the Polish anthropologist J. Czekanowski. However, a small number of used features and their composition inevitably lead to the conventionality of such schemes. At best, they can reliably reflect only the most general racial divisions of humanity. At the same time, very distant groups, sharply differing in many other features, can approach in a random way.

Most racial schemes belong to the second variant of classifications. The most important principle of their creation is geographical position races. First, the main ones (the so-called large races, or races of the first order) are distinguished, occupying vast territories of the planet. Then, within these large races, differentiation is carried out according to different morphological characteristics, small races (or races of the second order) are distinguished. Sometimes races of smaller levels are also distinguished (they are very unfortunately called the anthropological type).

The existing open-type racial classifications can be divided into two groups:

1) schemes highlighting a small number of basic types (large races);

2) schemes highlighting a large number of basic types.

In the schemes of the 1st group, the number of basic types ranges from two to five; in the schemes of the 2nd group, their number is 6-8 and more. It should be noted that in all these systems, several options are always repeated, and an increase in the number of options depends on giving individual groups a higher or lower rank.

In almost all schemes, at least three general groups (three large races) are necessarily distinguished: Mongoloids, Negroids and Caucasians, although the names of these groups may change.

20.EQUATORIAL LARGE RACE

Equatorial (or Australo-Negroid) large race is characterized by dark skin color, wavy or curly hair, wide nose, low middle nose, little protruding nose, transverse nostrils, large mouth gap, thick lips. Before the era of European colonization, the habitat of the representatives of the equatorial large race was located mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer in the Old World. The great equatorial race is divided into a number of minor races:

1) Australian: dark skin, wavy hair, abundant development of tertiary hair on the face and body, very wide nose, relatively high nose bridge, medium zygomatic diameter, height above average and tall;

2) Vedoid: poor development of the hairline, less wide nose, smaller head and face, smaller height;

3) Melanesian (including Negrito types), in contrast to the previous two, is characterized by the presence of curly hair; by the abundant development of the tertiary hairline, the strongly protruding superciliary arches, some of its variants are very similar to the Australian race; the composition of the Melanesian race is much more variegated than the Negroid;

4) the Negroid race differs from the Australian and Veddoid (and to a much lesser extent from the Melanesian) in very pronounced curly hair; it differs from the Melanesian in a greater thickness of the lips, a lower nose bridge and a flatter nasal bridge, somewhat higher orbits of the eye, slightly protruding brow ridges and, in general, higher growth;

5) the Negrillic (Central African) race differs from the Negroid not only in very short stature, but also in the more abundant development of the tertiary hairline, thinner lips, and a more sharply protruding nose;

6) the Bushman (South African) race differs from the Negroid not only in very short stature, but also in lighter skin, a narrower nose, a flatter face, a very flattened nose, small face size and steatopygia (fat deposition in the gluteal region).

21.EURASIAN GREAT RACE

The Eurasian (or Caucasian) large race is characterized by light or dark skin color, straight or wavy soft hair, abundant beard and mustache growth, a narrow, sharply protruding nose, high nose bridge, sagittal nostrils, a small mouth gap, thin lips.

Distribution area - Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, North India. The Caucasoid race is subdivided into a number of minor races:

1) Atlanto-Baltic: fair skin, blonde hair and eyes, long nose, tall;

2) Central European: less light pigmentation of hair and eyes, slightly smaller growth;

3) Indo-Mediterranean: dark color of hair and eyes, dark skin, wavy hair, an even more elongated nose than in previous races, a slightly more convex nasal bridge, a very narrow face;

4) Balkan-Caucasian: dark hair, dark eyes, bulging nose, very abundant development of the tertiary hairline, relatively short and very wide face, high growth;

5) White Sea-Baltic: very light, but slightly more pigmented than the Atlanto-Baltic, medium hair length, relatively short nose with a straight or concave back, small face and medium height.

22.ASIAN-AMERICAN RACE

The Asian-American (or Mongoloid) large race is distinguished by swarthy or light skin tones, straight, often coarse hair, weak or very weak beard and mustache growth, medium width of the nose, low or medium-sized nose bridge, weakly protruding nose in Asian races and strongly protruding in American, medium thick lips, flattening of the face, strong protrusion of the cheekbones, large size of the face, the presence of epicanthus.

The area of the Asian-American race covers East Asia, Indonesia, Central Asia, Siberia, America. The Asian American race is subdivided into several minor races:

1) North Asian: lighter skin color, less dark hair and eyes, very weak beard growth and thin lips, large size and strong flattening of the face. In the composition of the North Asian race, two very characteristic variants can be distinguished - the Baikal and Central Asian ones, which are significantly different from each other.

The Baikal type is characterized by less coarse hair, light skin pigmentation, weak beard growth, low nose bridge, thin lips. The Central Asian type is presented in various variants, some of which are close to the Baikal type, others - with variants of the Arctic and Far Eastern races;

2) the Arctic (Eskimo) race differs from the North Asian in more coarse hair, darker pigmentation of the skin and eyes, a lower frequency of the epicanthus, a slightly smaller zygomatic width, a narrow pear-shaped nasal opening, a high nose bridge and a more protruding nose, thick lips;

3) the Far Eastern race, in comparison with the North Asian, is characterized by coarser hair, dark skin pigmentation, thicker lips, and a narrower face. Typical for her is a large skull height, but a small face;

4) the South Asian race is characterized by an even more pronounced severity of those features that distinguish the Far Eastern race from the North Asian - greater swarthiness, more thickened lips. It differs from the Far Eastern race in a less flattened face and shorter stature;

5) the American race, varying greatly in many ways, is generally closest to the Arctic, but has some of its features in an even more pronounced form. So, the epicanthus is almost absent, the nose protrudes very strongly, the skin is very dark. The American race is characterized by large facial sizes and noticeably less flattening.

23.INTERMEDIATE RACES

Races intermediate between the three major races:

The Ethiopian (East African) race occupies an intermediate position between the equatorial and Eurasian large races in terms of skin and hair color. Skin color varies from light brown to dark chocolate, hair is often curly, but less spirally curled than blacks. The growth of the beard is weak to medium, the lips are moderately thick. However, in terms of facial features, this race is closer to the Eurasian. So, the width of the nose in most cases varies from 35 to 37 mm, the flattened shape of the nose is rare, the face is narrow, the height is above average, the elongated type of body proportions is characteristic;

The South Indian (Dravidian) race is generally very similar to the Ethiopian, but differs in a straighter hair shape and somewhat smaller stature; the face is slightly smaller and slightly wider; the South Indian race is intermediate between the Veddoid and Indo-Mediterranean races;

According to many characteristics, the Ural race occupies an intermediate position between the White Sea-Baltic and North Asian races; a concave nasal bridge is very characteristic of this race;

The South Siberian (Turanian) race is also intermediate between the Eurasian and Asian-American large races. The percentage of mixed races is significant. However, with a general indistinct expression of Mongolian features in this race, very large face sizes are observed, but smaller than in some variants of the North Asian race; in addition, a convex or straight nasal bridge, lips of medium thickness are characteristic;

The Polynesian race occupies a neutral position in many systematic characteristics; it is characterized by wavy hair, light brown, yellowish skin, a moderately developed tertiary hairline, a moderately protruding nose, and slightly thicker lips than those of Europeans; rather strongly protruding cheekbones; very high stature, large face size, large absolute width of the nose, rather high nasal index, much smaller than that of Negroes, and larger than that of Europeans; the Kuril (Ainu) race in its neutral position among the races of the globe resembles the Polynesian; however, some of the features of the great races are more sharply expressed in it. For a very strong development of the hairline, it occupies one of the first places in the world. On the other hand, it is characterized by a flattened face, a shallow depth of the canine fossa, and a rather large percentage of epicanthus; hair is coarse and significantly wavy; short stature.

24.HERITAGE AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT

The diversity of people is explained by human biology - we are born with different genes. At the same time, human biology is the source of human diversity because it was she who determined both the possibility of human society and its necessity.

External variability of a person is a product of society: gender and geographic, racial and ethnic differences take on social forms in society due to the development of the social division of labor and the distribution of types of labor among people by "birth", "property" or "ability".

The successes of human genetics have led not only to unconditional achievements in understanding his nature, but also to errors caused by the absolutization of the role of genes in the development of the individual. The main difference between people from the point of view of genetics is the difference between the genotype (the "program" of the evolution of the organism) and the phenotype (all manifestations of the organism, including its morphology, physiology and behavior, at specific moments of its life). Several mistakes lead to negative consequences in pedagogical practice. They boil down to type statements: a) genes determine the phenotype; b) genes determine the limiting possibilities; and c) genes determine the predispositions.

It is a mistake to say that genes determine the phenotype, that is, that the genotype can be used to accurately determine the phenotype of an organism. It is upbringing, place and nature of work, social experience that determine the differences in phenotypes. It is also wrong to say that genes determine the limiting capabilities of a person (organism). Metaphorically, this situation can be illustrated by the theory of "empty cells": the genotype determines the number and size of the cells, and experience fills them with content. With this understanding, the environment can act only as "depleted" or "enriched" from the point of view of the possibility of filling the cells set in advance at birth.

The position that genotypes determine the predisposition of an organism (personality) is also quite erroneous. The idea of a predisposition (for example, to be overweight or thin) suggests that the tendency manifests itself in normal conditions. In relation to humans, "normal environmental conditions" look extremely vague, and even the average values for the population, taken as standards, do not help here.

25.SEPARATION OF LABOR THEORY

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most important.

The physiological division is understood as the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by sex and age. The expressions "female labor", "male work" speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of "child labor" (the list of the latter is usually regulated by state law).

The technological division of labor is inherently infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate components due to the requirements of the technology for manufacturing a product.

The division of human labor means the division of the labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental work (doctors, people of science, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. Intellectual labor (development of technologies, education, advanced training of workers and their upbringing) is an increasingly expanding sphere.

The social division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between the social groups of society. Which group and how this or that life "share" falls out in the form of a particular set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by the analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such a distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

The term "main division of labor" was first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic by labor, divided into the past and the living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the strength, knowledge, ability, and skill of workers, enters the sphere of possession, disposal and use of individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, the state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of the possession of the past labor of the whole society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the ability to it also appears as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity.

26.SYSTEM OF BASIC HUMAN NEEDS

The initial basic human need, according to A. Maslow, is the need for life itself, that is, the totality of physiological and sexual needs - for food, clothing, housing, procreation, etc. Satisfaction of these needs, or this basic need, strengthens and continues life, ensures the existence of the individual as a living organism, a biological being.

Security and safety is the next most important basic human need. This includes concern for guaranteed employment, interest in the stability of existing institutions, norms and ideals of society, and the desire to have a bank account, an insurance policy, here and the absence of anxiety for personal safety, and much more. One of the manifestations of this need is also the desire to have a religion or philosophy that would “bring into the system” the world and determine our place in it.

The need for belonging (to a particular community), involvement and affection is the third basic human need, according to A. Maslow. This is love, and sympathy, and friendship, and other forms of proper human communication, personal intimacy; it is the need for simple human participation, the hope that suffering, grief, unhappiness will be shared, and, of course, the hope for success, joy, victory. The need for attachment and belonging is the flip side of a person's openness or trust in being, both social and natural. An unmistakable indicator of the dissatisfaction of a given need is a feeling of rejection, loneliness, abandonment, uselessness. Meeting the need for communication-community (belonging, belonging, affection) is very important for a fulfilling life.

The need for respect and self-esteem is another basic human need. A person needs to be appreciated - for skill, competence, independence, responsibility, etc., to be seen and recognized for his achievements, successes, merits. Here, considerations of prestige, reputation, and status come to the fore. But recognition from others is still not enough - it is important to respect yourself, have a sense of your own dignity, believe in your uniqueness, irreplaceability, feel that you are engaged in a necessary and useful business. Feelings of weakness, disappointment, helplessness are the surest evidence of dissatisfaction with this need.

Self-expression, self-affirmation, self-realization - the last, final, according to A. Maslow, the basic human need. However, it is final only according to the classification criteria. In reality, as the American psychologist believes, truly human, humanistically self-sufficient human development begins with it. A person at this level asserts himself through creativity, the realization of all his abilities and talents. He strives to become everything that he can and (according to his inner, free, but responsible motivation) must become. Man's work on himself is the main mechanism for satisfying the need in question.

27.SOCIO-CULTUROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ANTHROPOGENESIS

In the broadest context, the word “culture” is synonymous with “civilization”. In the narrow sense of the word, this term means artistic, spiritual culture. In a sociological context, this is a way of life, thought, action, a system of values and norms characteristic of a given society, a person. Culture unites people into integrity, society.

It is culture that regulates the behavior of people in society. Cultural norms regulate the conditions for satisfying a person's inclinations and impulses harmful to society - aggressive inclinations, for example, are used in sports.

Some cultural norms affecting the vital interests of a social group, society, become moral norms. The entire social experience of mankind convinces that moral norms are not invented, not established, but arise gradually from the everyday life and social practice of people.

Culture as a phenomenon of consciousness is also a way, a method of value assimilation of reality. The vigorous activity of a person, society to meet their needs requires a certain position. We must take into account the interests of other people and other communities, without this there is no conscious social action. This is a certain position of a person, a community, which is tracked in relation to the world, in assessing real phenomena, is expressed in the mental mentality.

The fundamental principle of culture is language. People, mastering the world around them, fix it in certain concepts and come to an agreement that a certain value is attached to a certain combination of sounds. Only a person is able to use symbols with which he communicates, exchanges not only simple feelings, but also complex ideas and thoughts.

The functioning of culture as a social phenomenon has two main trends: development (modernization) and preservation (stability, continuity). The integrity of culture is ensured by social selection, social selection. Any culture preserves only what corresponds to its logic and mentality. National culture always strives to impart a national flavor to new cultural acquisitions - both our own and those of others. Culture actively resists elements alien to it. Renewing peripheral, secondary elements relatively painlessly, culture exhibits a strong rejection reaction when it comes to its core.

Any culture is capable of self-development. This explains the diversity of national cultures, national identity.

28.CULTURE OF MODERN SOCIETY

The culture of modern society is a combination of various layers of culture, i.e., the dominant culture, subcultures and even countercultures. In any society, high culture (elite) and folk culture (folklore) can be distinguished. Development of funds mass media led to the formation of the so-called mass culture, simplified in semantic and artistic terms, technologically accessible to all. Mass culture, especially with its strong commercialization, is capable of displacing both high and popular culture.

The presence of subcultures is an indicator of the diversity of the culture of a society, its ability to adapt and develop. There are military, medical, student, peasant, Cossack subcultures. We can talk about the presence of an urban subculture, its national specificity with its own system of values.

According to R. Williams, American and Russian cultures are characterized by:

Personal success, activity and hard work, efficiency and usefulness at work, possession of things as a sign of well-being in life, a strong family, etc. (American culture);

Friendly relations, respect for neighbors and comrades, detente, withdrawal from real life, tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities, personality of a leader, leader (Russian culture). Contemporary Russian culture is also characterized by a phenomenon that sociologists have called the Westernization of cultural needs and interests, primarily of youth groups of the population. The values of the national culture are being supplanted or replaced by models of mass culture, focused on achieving the standards of the American way of life in its most primitive and lightweight perception.

Many Russians, and especially young people, are characterized by the absence of ethnocultural or national self-identification, they cease to perceive themselves as Russians, they lose their Russianness. The socialization of young people takes place either on the traditional Soviet or on the Western model of education, in any case non-national. Most young people perceive Russian culture as an anachronism. The lack of national self-identification among Russian youth leads to an easier penetration of Westernized values into the youth environment.

29.SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Social work includes a set of means, techniques, methods and methods of human activity aimed at social protection of the population, to work with various social, gender and age, religious, ethnic groups, with individuals in need of social assistance and protection.

A social worker needs knowledge of the integrative socio-anthropological, socio-medical, psychological and pedagogical directions, which allows him to provide practical assistance to the needy, socially vulnerable segments of the population.

Social education forms the professional and moral qualities of a specialist on the basis of a set of scientific knowledge in such sections of the social and humanitarian sciences as social anthropology, psychology, pedagogy, social ecology, social work. This range also includes social medicine, social gerontology, rehabilitology and other sciences.

The most important part of social knowledge is the study of man himself and his relationship with nature and society. The human community as a complex system of relationships, subject, like all complex systems, to the probabilistic laws of development, needs an integrated approach in the study and analysis of all spheres of human life.

30.BIOCHEMICAL INDIVIDUALITY

Each person has a unique genotype, which, in the process of growth and development, is realized into a phenotype under the influence of and in interaction with a unique combination of environmental factors. The result of this interaction is manifested not only in the variety of physique traits and other traits that we have considered. Each person has a composition of biologically active substances and compounds characteristic only of him - proteins, hormones, the percentage of which and their activity change throughout life and demonstrate various kinds of cyclicity. In terms of the scale of variability, it is the biochemical individuality that is primary, while external manifestations are only a weak reflection of it.

The concept of biochemical individuality is based on similar data on the exceptional diversity of the biochemical status of a person and the role of this special aspect of variability in the processes of vital activity of the organism in normal conditions and during the development of various pathologies. The development of the problem is largely due to the activities of the school of the American biochemist R. Williams, and in our country - to the activities of E. Khrisanfova and her students. Biologically active substances determine many aspects of human life - the rhythm of the heart, the intensity of digestion, resistance to certain environmental influences and even mood.

Based on the data of numerous studies, the possibility of applying a biotypological (constitutional) approach to the study of the hormonal status of a person has been established:

The reality of the existence of individual endocrine types of a person has been substantiated (a relatively small number of found models of the endocrine formula in comparison with their possible number);

The types of endocrine constitution have a fairly clear genetic basis;

The most pronounced correlations between different systems of endocrine signs characterize the extreme variants of hormonal secretion;

These variants are quite clearly associated with extreme manifestations of morphological constitutional types (according to different schemes);

Finally, the hormonal basis of the different types of constitution was established.

31. MENTAL FEATURES ACCORDING TO E. KRECHMER

According to the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer, people suffering from manic-depressive psychosis have a pycnic constitutional type: they often have increased fat deposition, a rounded figure, a wide face, etc. It was even noticed that they develop bald spots early.

The opposite complex of external signs is usually found in patients with schizophrenia. To the greatest extent, it corresponds to the asthenic constitutional type: a narrow thin body, a thin neck, long limbs and a narrow face. Sometimes in people with schizophrenia, hormonal disorders are pronounced: men are eunuchoid, and women are muscular. Less common among such patients are athletes. E. Kretschmer, in addition, argued that the athletic body type corresponds to epileptic disorders.

The author has identified similar relationships in healthy people. However, in healthy people, they are much less pronounced, since they represent, as it were, the middle of the variability of the psyche (norm), while patients occupy an extreme position in this series. In healthy people, tendencies towards one or another "edge" are expressed in a stable manifestation of schizotimic or cyclothymic traits of character or temperament (now we would rather call this phenomenon accentuations).

According to E. Kretschmer, mentally healthy picnics are cyclothymics. They, as it were, in a latent and smoothed form, manifest the features inherent in patients with manic-depressive psychosis.

These people are sociable, psychologically open, cheerful. Asthenics, on the other hand, exhibit the opposite complex of mental traits and are called schizotimics - accordingly, they have a tendency to character traits that resemble manifestations of schizophrenia. Schizotimics are uncommunicative, withdrawn, immersed in themselves. They are characterized by secrecy and a tendency to inner feelings. People of an athletic constitution are ixotimics, they are unhurried, calm, not very eager to communicate, but they also do not avoid it. In the understanding of E. Kretschmer, they are closest to the average rate of health.

Various studies either confirmed or refuted the main conclusions of E. Kretschmer. The main disadvantages of his work are methodological oversights: the use of hospital attendants as a "norm" does not at all reflect the morphological and mental realities existing in society, and the number of people examined by E. Kretschmer is too small, so the conclusions are statistically unreliable. In more thoroughly conducted studies, such clear (unambiguous) connections between mental characteristics and body characteristics were not found.

32. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO W. SHELDON

Rather rigid connections of morphology and temperament were described by W. Sheldon (1942). The work was done at a different methodological level and deserves more confidence. When describing temperament, the author used not a discrete type, but components, similar to how it was done in his constitutional system: 50 features were divided by W. Sheldon into three categories, on the basis of which he distinguished three components of temperament, each of which was characterized by 12 features ... Each feature was assessed on a seven-point scale, and the average score for 12 features determined the entire component (there is an analogy with the constitutional system here). Sheldon identified three components of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia, and cerebrotonia. After examining 200 subjects, Sheldon compared them with data on somatotypes. While the individual somatic and "mental" features showed a weak relationship, the constitutional types showed a high association with certain types of temperament. The author obtained a correlation coefficient of the order of 0.8 between viscerotonia and endomorphia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia, cerebrotonia and ectomorphia.

People with viscerotonic temperament are distinguished by relaxation of movements, sociability, in many respects - psychological dependence on public opinion. They are open to others in their thoughts, feelings and actions and most often, according to W. Sheldon, have an endomorphic constitutional type.

Somatotonic temperament is characterized primarily by vigor, some coldness in communication, a tendency to adventure. With sufficient sociability, people of this type are secretive in their feelings and emotions. Sheldon received a significant connection between somatotonic temperament and mesomorphic constitutional type.

Continuing the tendency towards a decrease in sociability, the cerebrotonic temperament is distinguished by secrecy in actions and emotions, a craving for loneliness, and constraint in communicating with other people. According to Sheldon, such people most often have an ectomorphic constitutional type.

33.CONSTITUTIONAL CHARACTERS

Constitutional characteristics are divided into three main groups: morphological, physiological and psychological characteristics.

Morphological signs are used to determine body types. Their inheritance has probably been studied the most. As it turns out, they are most closely associated with an inherited factor compared to the other two groups. However, the type of inheritance of most of these traits is not exactly known, since these traits depend not on one, but on many genes.

Of all the constitutional signs, the least genetically determined are the parameters associated with the development of the fat component. Of course, the accumulation of subcutaneous fat occurs not only in conditions of an excess of high-calorie food, but the tendency of this relationship between the level of nutrition and fat deposition is so obvious that it is rather a regularity. And the availability of food and genetics are different things.

Physiological signs, apparently, are somewhat weaker genetically determined than morphological ones. Due to the huge qualitative variety of characters, combined as physiological, it is difficult to talk about them as a whole. Obviously, some of them are inherited using one gene, while others are characterized by polygenic inheritance. Some depend little on the environment and heredity will play a significant role in their manifestation. Others, for example, heart rate, depend strongly on environmental conditions, and the factor of heredity will represent the role of a rather determining probabilistic force. Using the example of a heartbeat, this would mean that with a certain heredity, a person will be predisposed to a frequent heartbeat, say, in a stressful situation. Another person in these conditions will be less prone to a rapid heartbeat. And in what conditions a person lives and in what situations he finds himself, of course, does not depend on heredity.

The dependence of the psyche on the genetic factor is assessed at three different levels:

The basic neurodynamic level - nerve stimulation at the cellular level - is a direct derivative of the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. It certainly depends on genetics the most;

The psychodynamic level - the properties of temperament - is a reflection of the activity of the forces of excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. It already depends more on environmental factors (in the broad sense of the word);

Actually the psychological level - features of perception, intelligence, motivation, the nature of relationships, and so on. - to the greatest extent depends on upbringing, living conditions, attitudes towards a person of the people around him.

34.PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development means "a complex of properties of an organism that determines the supply of its physical strength."

P. Bashkirov has quite convincingly proved that the reserve of physical strength is an extremely conditional, although applicable in practice, concept. As a result of the research, it was found that the physical development of a person is well described by the ratio of three body parameters - weight, body length and chest girth - that is, the signs that determine the "structural and mechanical properties" of the body. To assess this level, indices constructed from these parameters (Broca's index and Pignet's index), as well as weight-height indicators (Rohrer's index and Quetelet's index) and the formula of "ideal" weight, representing the ratio of weight and body length corresponding to a certain idea of the ideal ratio of these parameters. For example, there is a widespread formula according to which body weight should be equal to body length minus 100 cm. In reality, such formulas work only for a part of people of average height, since both parameters grow disproportionately to each other. Even theoretically, there cannot be a universal formula. The method of standard deviations and the method of constructing regression scales were applied. The standards of physical development in children and adolescents have been developed and are regularly updated.

The assessment of physical development, of course, is not limited to the three listed indicators. Of great importance are assessments of the metabolic rate, the ratio of active and inactive components of the body, features of the neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory systems, tone of skeletal muscles, taking into account the indicator of biological age, etc.

Evaluating the complex of constitutional signs, we can make assumptions about the potential (predisposition) to a particular disease. But there is no direct "fatal" relationship between body type and a specific disease and cannot be.

35.ASTENIC AND PICNIC TYPE

To date, a large amount of information has been accumulated on the incidence rate of people with different morphological, functional and psychological constitutions.

So, people of asthenic constitution are prone to diseases of the respiratory system - asthma, tuberculosis, acute respiratory diseases. This is usually explained by a “low reserve of physical strength,” but most likely, this is simply due to the less thermal insulation of the body due to the lack of a fat component. In addition, asthenics are more susceptible to disorders of the digestive system - gastritis, stomach and duodenal ulcers. This, in turn, is due to the greater nervousness of asthenics, a greater risk of neurosis and, according to E. Kretschmer, a tendency to schizophrenia. Asthenics are characterized by hypotension and vegetative dystonia.

The picnic type, being in many ways the opposite of the asthenic type, has its own risks of diseases. First of all, these are diseases associated with high blood pressure - hypertension, as well as the risk of coronary artery disease, strokes, myocardial infarction. Associated diseases are diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. Picnics are more likely to suffer from gout, inflammatory skin diseases and allergic diseases. They may have a greater risk of cancer.

The association of the muscular type with pathologies has been much less studied. It is possible that people of a muscular type are more susceptible to stress and related illnesses.

An essential conclusion from the studies of the constitution is that it is incorrect to speak of “bad” or “good” versions of it. In practice, the global scale of variability is practically inapplicable here. Positive or negative qualities (risks) of certain constitutional types are manifested only in certain environmental conditions. So, the likelihood of getting pneumonia in a person of an athletic physique in Russia is much greater than that of an asthenic in New Guinea. And an asthenic, working in a flower shop or archive, is much more likely to get an allergy than a picnic working as a school teacher. An asthenic will feel much better at the forge of a steel mill or in a greenhouse than a picnic or an athlete; a picnic will feel better than an asthenic and an athlete - in some office, at a sedentary job, in a building with an elevator. The athlete will show the best results in sports or working as a loader.

36.THEORY OF SOCIALIZATION OF THE TARDA

The origins of the theory of socialization are outlined in the works of Tarde, who described the process of internalization (mastering by a person) of values and norms through social interaction. Imitation, according to Tardu, is the principle that forms the basis of the socialization process, and it is based both on physiological needs and the desires of people arising from them, and on social factors (prestige, obedience and practical benefit).

Tarde recognized the teacher-student relationship as a typical social relationship. V modern views on socialization, such a narrow approach has already been overcome. Socialization is recognized as part of the process of personality formation, during which the most general personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities, regulated by the role structure of society. Learning social roles takes place in the form of imitation. Common values and norms are mastered by an individual in the process of communicating with “significant others,” as a result of which normative standards are included in the structure of the individual's needs. This is how culture penetrates into the motivational structure of the individual within the framework of the social system. The socializer needs to know that the mechanism of cognition and assimilation of values and norms is the principle of pleasure-suffering formulated by Z. Freud, which is put into action with the help of reward and punishment; the mechanism also includes the processes of inhibition (displacement) and transfer. The imitation and identification of the learner is based on feelings of love and respect (for the teacher, father, mother, family in general, etc.).

Socialization is accompanied by upbringing, that is, the purposeful influence of the educator on the educated person, focused on the formation of the desired traits in him.

37.LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION

There are three levels of socialization (their reality has been tested empirically, as I. Kon testifies, in 32 countries): premoral, conventional and moral. The premoral level is characteristic of the relationship between children and parents based on the external dyad "suffering - pleasure", the conventional level is based on the principle of mutual retribution; the moral level is characterized by the fact that the actions of the individual begin to be regulated by conscience. Kohlberg proposes to distinguish seven gradations at this level up to the formation of a person's moral system. Many people in their development do not reach the moral level. In this regard, the term "moral pragmatism" has appeared in a number of Russian party programs, meaning that it is necessary to fight for the triumph of the moral law in the business relations of people. Society is gradually slipping to the level of "situational morality", the motto of which is: "Moral is what is useful in a given situation."

In childhood, the child wants to be like everyone else, therefore imitation, identification, authorities (“significant others”) play an important role.

The teenager already feels his individuality, as a result of which he strives to "be like everyone else, but better than everyone else." The energy of self-affirmation is poured into the formation of courage, strength, the desire to stand out in the group, not differing in principle from everyone else. The teenager is very normative, but in his own environment.

Youth is already characterized by the desire to "be different from everyone else." A clear scale of values arises that is not verbally demonstrated. The desire to stand out at all costs often leads to non-conformism, the desire to shock, to act contrary to public opinion. Parents at this age are no longer the authorities for their children, who undoubtedly dictate a line of behavior to them. Youth expands its horizons of vision and understanding of life and the world, often by denying the usual parental existence, forms its own subculture, language, tastes, and fashions.

The stage of true adulthood, social maturity is characterized by the fact that a person asserts himself through society, through a role structure and a system of values verified by culture. The desire to continue oneself through others - loved ones, a group, society and even humanity - becomes significant for him. But a person may not enter this stage at all. People who have stopped in their development and have not acquired the qualities of a socially mature personality are called infantile.

38.THEORY OF VIOLENCE

The focus of theories of violence is on the phenomenon of human aggressiveness. There are at least four lines of research and explanations for human aggression:

Ethological theories of violence (social Darwinism) explain aggressiveness by the fact that man is a social animal, and society is the bearer and reproducer of the instincts of the animal world. The boundless expansion of the individual's freedom without the necessary level of development of his culture increases the aggressiveness of some and the defenselessness of others. This situation has received the name "lawlessness" - an absolute lawlessness in relations between people and in the actions of the authorities;

Freudianism, neo-Freudianism and existentialism argue that human aggressiveness is the result of the frustration of an alienated personality. Aggressiveness is caused by social reasons (Freudianism takes it out of the Oedipus complex). Consequently, the main attention in the fight against crime should be paid to the structure of society;

Interactionism sees the reason for the aggressiveness of people in the "conflict of interests", the incompatibility of goals;

Representatives of cognitivism believe that a person's aggressiveness is the result of "cognitive dissonance", that is, inconsistencies in the cognitive sphere of the subject. Inadequate perception of the world, conflicting consciousness as a source of aggression, lack of mutual understanding are associated with the structure of the brain.

Researchers distinguish two types of aggression: emotional violence and antisocial violence, i.e. violence against the freedoms, interests, health and life of someone. Aggressiveness of a person, more precisely, crime as a consequence of the weakening of self-regulation of behavior, in its own way, tries to explain human genetics.

39.DEVIANT AND DELIQUENT BEHAVIOR

There is hardly a society in which all of its members behave in accordance with general regulatory requirements. When a person violates the norms, rules of behavior, laws, then his behavior, depending on the nature of the violation, is called deviant (deviating) or (at the next stage of development) delinquent (criminal, criminal, etc.). Such deviations are very diverse: from school absences ( deviant behavior), before theft, robbery, murder (delinquent behavior). The reaction of the people around you to deviant behavior shows how serious it is. If the offender is taken into custody or referred to a psychiatrist, it means that he committed a serious violation. Some actions are considered as offenses only in certain societies, others - in all without exception; for example, no society forgives the killing of its members or the expropriation of other people's property against their will. Drinking alcohol is a serious violation in many Islamic countries, and refusing to drink alcohol under certain circumstances in Russia or France is considered a violation of the accepted code of conduct.

The severity of the offense depends not only on the significance of the violated norm, but also on the frequency of such violation. If a student leaves the classroom backwards, it will only cause a smile. But if he does this every day, then the intervention of a psychiatrist will be required. A person who has not previously been brought to the police can be forgiven even for a serious violation of the law, while a person who has already had a criminal record faces severe punishment for a minor offense.

In modern society, the most essential norms of behavior affecting the interests of other people are written into laws, and their violation is considered a crime. Sociologists usually deal with the category of offenders who break the law because they pose a threat to society. The more burglaries, the more people fear for their property; the more murders, the more we fear for our lives.

40. THEORY OF ANOMY E. DURKHEIM

Most often, offenses are impulsive acts. Biological theories are of little help when it comes to deliberate crimes.

The theory of anomie (deregulation) occupies an important place in explaining the causes of deviant behavior. E. Durkheim, investigating the causes of suicide, considered the main cause of the phenomenon, which he called anomie. He emphasized that social rules play a major role in regulating people's lives. Norms govern their behavior, people know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. During crises, wars, radical social changes, life experience does not help much. People are confused and disorganized. Social norms are destroyed, people lose their bearings - all this contributes to deviant behavior. Although E. Durkheim's theory has been criticized, his main idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is generally accepted.

The growth of social disorganization is not necessarily associated with an economic crisis or inflation. It can also be observed at a high level of migration, which leads to the destruction of social ties. Please note: the crime rate is always higher where there is a high migration of the population. The theory of anomie has been developed in the works of other sociologists. In particular, ideas about "social hoops" were formulated, that is, the level of social (settledness) and moral (degree of religiosity) integration, the theory of structural tension, social investment, etc.

41.DEVIANT BEHAVIOR THEORY

Structural tension theory explains many of the offenses by personal frustration. A decline in living standards, racial discrimination and many other phenomena can lead to deviant behavior. If a person does not occupy a strong position in society or cannot achieve the set goals by legal means, then sooner or later he has disappointment, tension, he begins to feel his inferiority and can use deviant, illegal, methods to achieve his goals.

The idea of social investment is simple and to some extent related to the theory of tension. The more a person has spent efforts to achieve a certain position in society (education, qualifications, place of work and much more), the more he risks losing in case of violation of laws. An unemployed person will lose little if he is caught robbing a store. There are known some categories of degraded people who specifically try to get to prison on the eve of winter (warmth, food). If a successful person decides to commit a crime, then he steals, as a rule, huge sums, which, in his opinion, justify the risk.

Attachment theory, differentiated communication. We all tend to show sympathy, to feel affection for someone. In this case, we strive to ensure that these people form a good opinion of us. This conformity helps maintain appreciation and respect for us and protects our reputation.

The theory of stigma, or labeling,

it is the ability of influential groups in society to stigmatize deviants to some social or national groups: representatives of certain nationalities, homeless, etc. If a person is branded as a deviant, then he begins to behave accordingly.

Proponents of this theory distinguish between primary (personality behavior that allows a person to be labeled a criminal) and secondary deviant behavior (behavior that is a reaction to the label).

The theory of integration was proposed by E. Durkheim, who compared the conditions of a traditional rural community and large cities. If people move a lot, social ties are weakened, many competing religions develop, which mutually weaken each other, etc.

42.CONTROL IN THE SOCIETY

Any society for the purpose of self-preservation establishes certain norms, rules of conduct and appropriate control over their implementation.

Three main forms of control are possible:

Isolation - excommunication of hardened criminals, up to the death penalty;

Isolation - limitation of contacts, incomplete isolation, for example, a colony, a psychiatric hospital;

Rehabilitation - preparation for returning to normal life; rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, juvenile delinquents. Control can be formal or informal.

Formal control system - organizations created to protect order. We call them law enforcement. They have varying degrees of severity: tax inspection and tax police, police and riot police, courts, prisons, correctional labor colonies. Any society creates norms, rules, laws. For example, biblical commandments, traffic rules, criminal law, etc.

Informal control is the unofficial social pressure of others, the press. Perhaps punishment through criticism, ostracism; the threat of physical harm.

Any society cannot function normally without a developed system of norms and rules prescribing the fulfillment by each person of the requirements and duties necessary for society. People in almost any society are controlled mainly through socialization in such a way that they perform most of their social roles unconsciously, naturally, due to habits, customs, traditions and preferences.

In modern society, of course, there are not enough rules and norms established at the level of primary social groups for social control. A system of laws and punishments for violation of established requirements and rules of behavior is formed on a society-wide scale, and group control by state governing bodies is applied on behalf of the whole society. When an individual is unwilling to follow the requirements of the law, society resorts to coercion.

The rules vary in severity, and any violation of them entails different penalties. There are norms-rules and norms-expectations. Norms-expectations are regulated by public opinion, morality, norms-rules - by laws, law enforcement agencies. Hence the corresponding punishments. A norm-expectation can turn into a norm-rule, and vice versa.

Noun anthropology comes from the Greek words (man and thought, word) and denotes reasoning, or teaching, about a person. Adjective philosophical indicates the way of studying a person in which an attempt is made to explain the very essence of a person through rational thinking.

Philosophical anthropology- a section of philosophy dealing with the investigation of the nature and essence of man.

In addition to philosophical anthropology, a number of other sciences are interested in man (physical anthropology - the subject of this science is questions of polyiontology, population genetics, ethology - the science of animal behavior).

Psychological anthropology, which studies human behavior from a mental and psychological perspective.

Cultural anthropology(most developed) - is engaged in the study of customs, rituals, kinship systems, language, morality of primitive peoples.

Social anthropology- is engaged in the study of modern people.

Theological anthropology- the industry examines and clarifies the religious aspects of human understanding.

Ideological turn towards naturalism in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. led to the usurpation of the concept of anthropology by the empirical social sciences, and especially such as biology, genetics and the science of races. Only in the late 1920s, or rather in 1927, Max Scheler (1874-1928), in his work "The Position of Man in Space", revived the concept of anthropology in its original philosophical meaning. This work of Scheler, together with his famous work "Man and History", made anthropology re-aware as an absolutely philosophical discipline. Other thinkers: Helmut Plesner, Arnold Gehlen. Scheler decided to assert that in a certain sense "all the central problems of philosophy are reduced to the question of what man is and what metaphysical position he occupies among all being, the world and God."

Philosophical anthropology- fundamental science about the essence and essential structure of man, about his relationship to the kingdom of nature, about his physical, psychological, spiritual appearance in the world, about the main directions and laws of his biological, psychological, spiritual, historical and social development.

This also includes the psychophysical problem of body and soul.

Max Scheler believed that five main types of human self-understanding dominate in the Western European cultural circle, i.e. ideological directions in understanding the essence of man.

First idea about a person, dominating in theistic (Jewish and Christian) and church circles - religious. It represents a complex result of the mutual influence of the Old Testament, ancient philosophy and the New Testament: the well-known myth about the creation of man (his body and soul) by a personal God, about the origin of the first couple of people, about the state of paradise (teaching about the original state), about his fall, when he was seduced by a fallen angel - fallen independently and freely; about salvation by the God-man, having a dual nature, and about the return to the number of the children of God carried out in this way; eschatology, the doctrine of freedom, personality and spirituality, the immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the flesh, the last judgment, etc. This anthropology of biblical faith has created a huge number of world-historical perspectives, ranging from the "City of God" Augustine to the latest theological directions of thought.

Second, the idea of man, which still dominates us today - ancient greek... This is the idea "homo sapiens", expressed most definitely and clearly by Anaxagoras, Plato and Aristotle. This idea distinguishes between humans and animals in general. Reason (λόγος, νους) in man is seen as a function of the divine principle. Personality in man is the individual self-concentration of the divine spirit. Spirit is mind, i.e. thinking in ideas; the sphere of feelings, emotions, will; active center, i.e. our I; self-awareness.

Concretizing definitions: 1. man is endowed with a divine principle, which all nature does not subjectively contain; 2. this is the beginning and that which eternally forms and shapes the world as a world (rationalizes chaos, "matter" into space), the essence according to its principle one thing u is the same; therefore, the knowledge of the world is true; 3. this beginning as λόγος and as a human mind is capable of translating into reality its ideal content ("the power of the spirit", "the autocracy of the idea").

Almost all philosophical anthropology from Aristotle to Kant and Hegel (including M. Scheler) differed quite insignificantly from the doctrine of man presented in these four definitions.

Third human ideology is naturalistic, "positivist", later also pragmatic teachings that I want to summarize with a short formula "homo faber"... It differs in the most fundamental way from the theory just outlined for the human being as "homo sapiens."

This doctrine of "homo faber", first of all, generally denies the special specific ability of man to reason. There is no essential distinction between man and animal: there is only power-law differences; man is only a special kind of animal. Man, first of all, is not a rational being, not "homo sapiens", but "being determined by drives." What is called spirit, reason, does not have an independent, isolated metaphysical origin, and does not have an elementary autonomous pattern consistent with the very laws of being: it is only a further development of higher mental abilities, which we already find in great apes.

What is the person here in the first place? He is, 1. an animal using signs (language), 2. an animal using tools, 3. a being endowed with a brain, that is, a creature whose brain, especially the cerebral cortex, consumes significantly more energy than in an animal. Signs, words, so-called concepts are also just tools, namely, only refined psychic instruments. In humans there is nothing that would not be in its embryonic form in some higher vertebrates ...

The image of a person, understood as homo faber, was gradually built, starting with Democritus and Epicurus, by such philosophers as Bacon, Hume, Mill, Comte, Spencer, later - evolutionary doctrine associated with the names of Darwin and Lamarck, even later - pragmatist-conventionalist ( as well as fictional) philosophical doctrines…. This idea found considerable support among the great psychologists of drives: Hobbes and Machiavelli should be considered their fathers; among them L. Feuerbach, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, and among the researchers of modern times 3. Freud and A. Adler.

Fourth puts forward the thesis of the inevitable decadence man in the course of his entire history and the cause of this decadence is seen in the very essence and origin of man. To a simple question: "What is a person?" this anthropology answers: man is deserter of life, life in general, its basic values, its laws, its sacred cosmic meaning. Theodore Lessing (1872-1933) wrote that: “Man is a species of predatory apes, gradually earning megalomania on his so-called“ spirit ”. Man, according to this teaching, is the dead end of life in general. An individual person is not sick, he can be healthy within his specific organization - but a person as such there is a disease. Man creates language, science, state, art, tools only because of his biological weakness and impotence, because of the impossibility of biological progress.

This strange theory turns out to be, however, logically strictly consistent if - at this point, in full agreement with the doctrine of "homo sapiens" - to separate spirit (respectively, mind) and life as the last two metaphysical principles, but at the same time identify life with the soul, and the spirit - with technical intelligence, and at the same time - and this decides everything - to make the values of life the highest values. Spirit, like consciousness, then appears quite consistently as a principle that simply destroys, destroys life, that is, the highest of values.

Representatives of this understanding: Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, in some respects also Bergson and the modern trend of psychoanalysis.

Fifth- took the idea superman Nietzsche and laid a new rational foundation for it. In a strictly philosophical form, this occurs primarily among two philosophers: Dietrich Heinrich Kerler and Nikolai Hartmann (“ Ethics").

In N. Hartmann we find atheism of a new type and forming the foundation of a new idea of man. To god it is forbidden exist and God does not should exist in the name of responsibility, freedom, purpose, in the name of the meaning of human existence. Nietzsche owns one phrase that is rarely fully understood: "If Gods existed, how could I bear that I am not God? So, there are no Gods." Heinrich Kerler once expressed this idea with even greater boldness: “What is the world basis for me, if I, as a moral being, clearly and clearly know what is good and what I should do? If the world base exists and it agrees with what I consider to be good, then I respect it as a friend is respected; but if she doesn’t agree, I don’t care about her, even though she would grind me down together with all my goals. ” It should be borne in mind: the denial of God here does not mean the removal of responsibility and a decrease in the independence and freedom of man, but just the maximum permissible increased responsibility and sovereignty. So, and Hartmann says: "The predicates of God (predestination and providence) should be transferred back to man." But not on humanity, but on personality - namely, to that person who has the maximum of responsible will, integrity, purity, intelligence and power.

Educational edition
A. A. Belik At 43 - Culturology. Anthropological theories of cultures. M .: Russian state. humanizes. un-t. M., 1999. 241 s

BBK71.1 B 43 Educational literature on humanitarian and social disciplines for higher education and secondary specialized educational institutions is prepared and published with the assistance of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) within the framework of the program “ Higher education”. The views and approaches of the author do not necessarily coincide with the position of the program. In particularly controversial cases, an alternative point of view is reflected in the prefaces and afterwords.
Editorial council: V.I.Bakhmin, Ya.M. Berger, E.Yu. Genieva, G.G. Diligensky, V.D.Shadrikov.
ISBN 5-7281-0214-Х © Belik A.A., 1999 © Russian State University for the Humanities, design, 1999

Foreword

Section 1. Basic concepts. The subject of cultural studies

Introduction

Evolutionism

Diffusionism

Biologism

Psychologism

Psychoanalyticism

Functionalism

Section 2. Holistic cultural and anthropological concepts of the mid-20th century

White's theory

Kroeber's anthropology

Anthropology of Herskovitz

Section 3. Interaction of culture and personality. Features of the functioning and reproduction of cultures.

The direction "culture-and-personality"

Childhood as a cultural phenomenon

Thinking and culture

ethnoscience

Ecstatic states of consciousness

Interaction of culture, personality and nature

Ethnopsychological study of cultures

Section 4. Theories of cultures of psychological and anthropological orientation in the 70-80s of the XX century

Classical psychoanalysis

Fromm's culturology

Maslow's humanistic psychology

Ethological approach to the study of cultures

Cultural Studies and Problems of Future Global Development

Glossary of concepts and terms

FOREWORD

This study guide was created on the basis of the course on cultural studies, read by the author at the Faculty of Management, as well as at the Faculty of Psychology and Economics of the Russian State University for the Humanities. The book uses the author's scientific developments concerning various aspects of the study of cultures in cultural, social, psychological anthropology.

The introduction analyzes theoretical problems, such as the definition of the concept of "culture", its relationship with concrete historical reality, gives a characteristic of the two most important types of cultures: modern and traditional. The qualitative originality of culture is shown through a special type of activity (social), inherent only to communities of people. The first section examines various theories of cultures, approaches to the study of phenomena, elements of culture (evolutionism, diffusionism, biologism, psychoanalysis, psychological direction, functionalism) that arose in the 19th - mid-20th centuries. The author tried to show as wide as possible the range of different options for studying cultures, to present a panorama of views, points of view on the essence of cultural studies. Closely adjacent to this section is the second section, which tells about the holistic concepts of culture (A. Kroeber, L. White, M. Herskovitz), reflecting the tendencies of the cultural and anthropological tradition.

The third section is devoted to the study of the interaction of culture and personality. This is new for such courses, but the author believes that such research should become an integral part of cultural studies. This section includes the study of how a person thinks, learns the world, acts and feels in different cultures. An essential role in the analysis of these processes is assigned to childhood as a special cultural phenomenon. The question of the types of thinking in societies with different levels of technological development is posed in a new way. The emotional side of cultures is also reflected, its Dionysian trait is viewed through altered states of consciousness, ecstatic rituals. The ethnopsychological study of cultures has also become the subject of careful analysis.

The last section examines the theories of cultures that became widespread in the 70-80s of the XX century. They opened new horizons in the development of cultural studies, updated methods, and expanded the subject of research. The various approaches to the study of cultures studied in this course serve another purpose: to show the diversity (pluralism) of points of view, concepts that contribute to the education of one's own view of the historical and cultural process.

The author did not set himself a goal, and because of the limited volume, he could not consider all types of theories of cultures. These or those theories of cultures are considered depending on a number of circumstances, and above all on the structure of the course, which contains as the most important part of the problem of cultural studies (culture and thinking, personality, nature and culture, etc.). I would like to emphasize that the main task of the course is to show the interaction of personality in culture, to draw students' attention to the fact that behind the various "faces of culture" there is a person with his abilities, needs, goals, due to which cultural studies acquire a humanistic orientation. It is in connection with the expression of the personal principle in the last section that the theories of cultures of psychological and anthropological orientation are considered.

To a certain extent, this circumstance explains the absence of theories of Russian cultural researchers, since they place the main emphasis on the ethnographic study of peoples. The concept of "culture" plays a less significant role for them, and they hardly study the interaction of culture and personality. In addition, the author follows the tradition that has developed in our country - to consider the concepts of domestic culturologists as a separate subject of research *.

* See: S.A. Tokarev History of Russian ethnography. M., 1966; Zalkind N.G. Moscow School of Anthropologists in the Development of the Russian Science of Man. M., 1974.

It should be noted that a significant addition to this course is the anthology of cultural studies: cultural and social anthropology (Moscow, 1998).

The author is grateful to the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) for the support of this project, to Corresponding Member of the RAS S.A. Arutyunov and Doctor of Historical Sciences V.I. Kozlov for kind advice and support in scientific research included in this textbook, Doctor of Historical Sciences V.N. Basilov - for his active assistance in creating the draft textbook. Separately, the author would like to thank the Doctor of Historical Sciences EG Aleksandrenkov for his help in writing the chapter "Diffusionism". The author is especially grateful to the professor of the Department of History and Theory of Culture of the Russian State University for the Humanities GI Zvereva, whose sensitive and attentive attitude made it possible to create a special educational course - culturology.

In addition, the author thanks the editorial board of the journal "Ethos" (USA), Professor E. Bourguignon (USA) and Professor I. Abel-Eibesfeldt (Germany) for providing literature that is absent in Russian libraries. In assessing a number of trends in the study of cultures, the author based on the work of the classic of Russian ethnology S.A. Tokarev.

Section 1 . Basic concepts. The subject of cultural studies.

INTRODUCTION

1. The idea of the object of study of cultural studies and the sciences of culture.

WORD cultura (lat.) Means "processing", "agriculture", in other words - it is cultivation, humanization, change of nature as a habitat. The concept itself contains the opposition between the natural course of development of natural processes and phenomena and the artificially created "second nature" by man - culture. Culture, thus, is a special form of human life, qualitatively new in relation to the previous forms of organization of life on earth.

In history and in the modern era, a huge variety of types of cultures existed in the world as local-historical forms of communities of people. Each culture with its spatial and temporal parameters is closely related to its creator - the people (ethnos, ethno-confessional community). Any culture is divided into its constituent parts (elements) and performs certain functions. The development and functioning of cultures provides a special way of human activity - social (or cultural), the main difference of which is actions not only with object-material formations, but also with ideal-figurative entities, symbolic forms. Culture expresses the specifics of the way of life, the behavior of individual peoples, their special way of perception of the world in myths, legends, a system of religious beliefs and value orientations that give meaning to human existence. A complex of religious beliefs of various levels of development (animism, totemism, magic, polytheism and world religions) plays an important role in the functioning of cultures. Often, religion (and it acts as the most important element of spiritual culture) is the leading factor in determining the originality of cultures and the main regulatory force in human communities. Culture, therefore, is a special form of people's life, which gives manifestation of a variety of life styles, material ways of transforming nature and creating spiritual values.

Structurally, culture includes: features of the ways of maintaining the life of the community (economy); specifics of ways of behavior; models of human interaction; organizational forms (cultural institutions) that ensure the unity of the community; the formation of a person as a cultural being; part or subdivision associated with the "production", creation and functioning of ideas, symbols, ideal entities that give meaning to the perception of the world that exists in culture.

After the era of "great geographical discoveries", before the gaze of amazed Europeans, who had just woken up from "medieval hibernation", a whole new world opened up, full of a variety of cultural forms and peculiarities of the way of life. In the XIX century. various types of cultures, descriptions of specific rituals and beliefs that existed in Africa, North and South America, Oceania and a number of Asian countries, formed the basis for the development of cultural and social anthropology. These disciplines make up a wide range of studies of local cultures, their interaction with each other, the peculiarities of the influence of natural conditions on them. Many local cultures were then presented in the form of a cultural-historical process of two forms:

linear-stage evolution of a progressive nature (from simpler societies to more complex ones);
multilinear development of different types of cultures. In the latter case, more emphasis was placed on the originality, even the uniqueness of the cultures of individual peoples, and the cultural process was viewed as the implementation of various historically determined types (European version of development, "Asian" type of culture, traditional version of the cultures of Africa, Australia, South America, etc.).

In the 30s of the XX century. from cultural anthropology, a special anthropological discipline emerged - psychological anthropology, which made the subject of its consideration the interaction of personality and culture of various types. In other words, the personality factor began to be taken into account in cultural studies. It should be noted that all cultural and anthropological knowledge is often called ethnology. Ethnology is the study of different cultures in the unity of general theoretical and specific empirical (ethnographic) levels of analysis. It is in this sense that this term is used in this textbook. The word "ethnographic" was assigned the meaning of the primary collection of information about cultures (both experimental and field, obtained by the method of participatory observation, as well as through questionnaires and interviews).

The term "anthropology" is used by the author in two main senses. First, this term refers to the general science of culture and man. In this sense, it was used by cultural researchers in the 19th century. In addition, cultural anthropology, psychological anthropology, and social anthropology were called anthropology. There is also physical anthropology, the subject of which is the biological variability of the organism, the external "racial" characteristics of a person, the specificity of his intraorganic processes, due to different geographical conditions.

Anthropological study of cultures is the core, the core of cultural knowledge as a whole. Such a study is organically connected with the study of the history of cultures, distinguished on the basis of the periodization of the phases of cultural development (culture of the ancient world, the Middle Ages, modern European culture, the culture of post-industrial society), regions of distribution (culture of the countries of Europe, America, Africa, etc.) or the leading religious traditions (Taoist, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist types of culture ...).

The object of study of cultural anthropology is primarily traditional societies, and the subject of study is the systems of kinship, the relationship between language and culture, the characteristics of food, housing, marriage, family, the diversity of economic systems, social stratification, the importance of religion and art in ethnocultural communities. Social anthropology is cultural and anthropological knowledge in Europe, primarily in England and France. As its distinguishing feature, one can single out increased attention to social structure, political organization, management and application of the structural-functional research method.

The subject of cultural studies can be various forms of cultures, the basis for the allocation of which is the time, place of distribution or religious orientation. In addition, the subject of cultural studies can be the theory of culture, developed in artistic form (fine arts, sculpture, music), in literature, as elements of philosophical systems. Cultural studies can be based on the analysis of the text, individual aspects of the development of spiritual culture, primarily various forms of art.

2. Approaches to the definition of "culture"

PRACTICALLY all definitions of culture are united in one thing - this is a characteristic or a way of human activity, not animals. Culture is the main concept for designating a special form of organization of people's life. Many, though not all, cultural researchers interpret the concept of "society" as an aggregate or aggregate of individuals living together. This concept describes the life of both animals and humans. One can, of course, dispute this interpretation, but it is very common in the cultural and anthropological tradition, primarily in the United States. Therefore, it is more appropriate to use the concept of "culture" to express the specifics of human existence *.

* In this textbook, the concepts of "society" and "culture" are often used as synonyms.

Diverse definitions of the concept of "culture" are associated with one or another direction in the study theoretical concept used by various researchers. The first definition of the concept was given by the classic of the evolutionist direction E. Tylor. He considered culture as a set of its elements: beliefs, traditions, art, customs, etc. Such an idea of culture left an imprint on his culturological concept, in which there was no place for culture as a whole. The scientist studied it as a series of elements that become more complex in the process of development, for example, as a gradual complication of objects of material culture (tools of labor) or the evolution of forms of religious beliefs (from animism to world religions).

In addition to the descriptive definition, in cultural studies, two approaches to the analysis of the concept of "culture" and, accordingly, to its definition competed. The first belongs to A. Kroeber and K. Klakhon. " Culture consists- according to them, - from internally contained and externally manifested norms that determine behavior, mastered and mediated with the help of symbols; it arises as a result of human activities, including its embodiment in [material] means. The essential core of culture is made up of traditional (historically formed) ideas, primarily those that are attributed with special value. Cultural systems can be considered, on the one hand, as the results of human activity, and on the other, as its regulators.""(1) ... In this definition, culture is the result of human activity; behavioral stereotypes and their features occupy an essential place in the study of cultures in accordance with this approach to definition.

L. White, in the definition of culture, resorted to object-material interpretation. Culture, he believed, is a class of objects and phenomena that depend on a person's ability to symbolize, which is considered in an extrasomatic context (2) ... For him, culture is an integral organizational form of human existence, but viewed from the side of a special class of objects and phenomena.

The book by A. Kroeber and K. Klachon "Culture, a critical review of definitions" (1952), in which the authors cited about 150 definitions of culture, was specially devoted to the problem of defining culture. The book's success was enormous, so the second edition of this work included more than 200 definitions of culture. I would like to emphasize that each type of definition highlights its own facet in the study of cultures, which sometimes becomes the starting point for a particular type of culturological theory. Along with the definitions of culture by L. White, A. Kroeber and E. Taylor, there are also a number of types of definitions.

The so-called normative definitions of culture are associated with the way of life of the community. So, according to K. Wissler, " the way of life followed by a community or tribe is considered a culture ... The culture of a tribe is a collection of beliefs and practices..."(3) .

A large group consists of psychological definitions of culture. For example, W. Samner defines culture " as a set of human adaptations to his living conditions"(4) ... R. Benedict understands culture as acquired behavior that each generation of people must learn anew... G. Stein expressed a specific point of view on culture. In his opinion, culture is the search for therapy in the modern world... M.Herskovits considered culture " as the sum of behavior and way of thinking that forms a given society"(5) .

Structural definitions of culture occupy a special place. The most characteristic of them belongs to R. Linton:
"a) Culture is, in the final analysis, nothing more than organized repetitive reactions of members of society;
b) Culture is a combination of acquired behavior and behavioral results, the components of which are shared and inherited by members of a given society" (6) .
The structural definition also includes the definition given by J. Honigman. He believed that culture consists of two types of phenomena.
The first is "socially standardized behavior-action, thinking, feelings of a certain group."
The second is "material products ... of the behavior of a certain group"(7) .
In the following chapters, it will be shown how the initial provisions laid down in some types of definitions in the real fabric of cultural theory are realized. As a result of a brief overview of the types of definitions (in fact, there are even more types: genetic, functional definitions ...), we can conclude that they are still talking about the form of organization of human life, its features belonging to different peoples. In this manual, the term "ethnocultural community" will also be used to denote a separate culture.

In modern cultural studies (as well as in anthropology of the 50-60s) there is one important debatable problem - about the status of the concept of "culture": how the concept of "culture" relates to the phenomena, objects of reality that it describes. Some believe that the concept of culture (just like the concept of ethnos and some other general category-universals) is only pure ideal types, abstractions that exist in the heads of individuals (in this case, cultural studies), logical constructs that are difficult to correlate with a specific historical reality. Others (among them, first of all, the founder of cultural studies L. White should be called) are of the opinion about the objective-material nature of culture, which, by the way, is expressed in definitions, considering culture as a class of objects, phenomena ... and correlate the type of culture directly with the corresponding phenomena of social reality.

How is this contradiction resolved? First, each side defends its innocence, based on its own definitions of culture. In this sense, there is some truth in both positions. True, there remains the problem of correlating the concept and living diverse reality. Proponents of understanding culture as a logical construct usually ask: show this culture, explain how to perceive it empirically. Naturally, it is difficult to see and touch culture as a form of organizing human experience, the way of life of an individual nation, as a material thing. Cultural stereotypes exist only in human actions and in cultural traditions. In addition, there is one circumstance here that is very significant for cultural studies and for the human sciences in general.

The peculiarity of culture is precisely that some of its elements and phenomena exist as ideas (ideal formations) shared by all members of a given ethnocultural community. Ideas or images can be objectified, materialized in words, legends, in writing in the form of an epic or works of fiction, etc. The very concept of "is" or "to exist" as applied to culture means not only material-material being, but ideal , figurative functioning. Culture presupposes the presence of a special subjective reality, the simplest example of which is a special perception of the world, or mentality. Therefore, considering, in principle, a very difficult question of the relationship between the concept of culture and historical reality, one must remember that the social reality of a person has two dimensions - objective-material and ideal-figurative.

3. Traditional and modern cultures

ANTHROPOLOGICAL study of cultures necessarily includes explicit or implicit opposition, comparison of traditional and modern types of society. Traditional culture (or type of society) is (in the very first approximation) a society in which regulation is carried out on the basis of customs, traditions, and institutions. The functioning of modern society is ensured by codified law, a set of laws, amended by legislative bodies elected by the people.

Traditional culture is prevalent in societies in which changes are invisible to the life of one generation - the past of adults turns out to be the future of their children. An all-conquering custom reigns here, a tradition preserved and passed down from generation to generation. Social organization units are made up of familiar people. Traditional culture organically combines its constituent elements; a person does not feel discord with society. This culture organically interacts with nature, is one with it. This type of society is focused on the preservation of identity, cultural identity. The authority of the older generation is indisputable, which makes it possible to bloodlessly resolve any conflicts. The source of knowledge and skills is the older generation.

The modern type of culture is characterized by fairly rapid changes taking place in the process of continuous modernization. The source of knowledge, skills, cultural skills is an institutionalized system of education and training. A typical family is "children-parents", the third generation is absent. The authority of the older generation is not as high as in the traditional society, the conflict of generations is clearly expressed ("fathers and children"). One of the reasons for its existence is the changing cultural reality, each time determining new parameters of the life path of a new generation. Modern society- anonymously, it consists of people unknown to each other. Its important difference lies in the fact that it is unified-industrial, universally the same. Such a society exists mainly in cities (or even in megacities, in an endless urban reality, such as the east coast of the United States), being in a state of disharmony with nature, a global imbalance, called the ecological crisis. A specific feature of modern culture is the alienation of man from man, disruption of communication, communication, the existence of people as atomized individuals, cells of a giant superorganism.

Traditional culture is pre-industrial, as a rule, unwritten, the main occupation in it is agriculture. There are cultures that are still at the stage of hunting and gathering. The most diverse information about traditional cultures is collected together in J. Murdoch's Ethnographic Atlas, which was first published in 1967. At present, a computer database of more than 600 traditional societies has been created (it is also known as the Human Relations Area Files). Analyzing individual problems of cultural studies, we use his data. In the following presentation, along with the term "traditional culture" (society) will be used as a synonym for the concept of "archaic society" (culture), as well as "primitive society" (culture) in view of the use of the latter by a number of cultural researchers.

The question of correlating the identified types of cultures with real historical reality is quite natural. Traditional societies still exist in South America, Africa, Australia. Their characteristic features largely correspond to the type of culture we described earlier. The real embodiment of industrial culture is the United States, the urbanized (urban) part of European countries. True, one must bear in mind that in the rural areas of developed industrial countries there is a tendency to preserve the traditional way of life. Thus, in one country, two types of culture can be combined - unified industrial and ethnically distinctive, traditionally oriented. Russia, for example, is a complex mix of traditional and modern cultures.

Traditional and modern cultures are two poles in a wide range of intercultural studies. It is also possible to distinguish a mixed type of societies-cultures involved in industrial modernization, but nevertheless preserved their cultural traditions. In the mixed traditional-industrial type of culture, elements of modernization and ethnically determined stereotypes of behavior, way of life, customs, and national peculiarities of the world view are relatively harmoniously combined. Examples of such societies are Japan, some countries in Southeast Asia, and China.

4. Cultural (social) and biological ways of life

As it is from the foregoing presentation, the characteristics of human activity play a fundamental role in the emergence, development and reproduction of cultures. Many of the original definitions of culture on which anthropologists are based also aim at this. We are talking about the symbolic nature of culture, acquired stereotypes of actions, about a special (cultural) type of human behavior or about specific forms or types of activities that exist within the framework of culture. So, a person, interacting with the surrounding reality in a special way, created a "second nature" - material culture and an ideal-figurative sphere of activity. Creatures living on Earth have formed two types of life: instinctively biological and culturally expedient (social). Comparing them, we will try to answer the question of what is the specificity of the cultural mode of activity.

With an instinctive type of life, hereditarily acquired (innate) stereotypes of behavior dominate, often very rigidly linked to external natural conditions. The nature of the activity is predetermined by the anatomical and physiological structure of the organism, which leads to the specialization of the activity of animals (for example, a predator, herbivore, etc.) and existence in a certain territory in a living environment, in limited climatic conditions. In the actions of animals, a decisive role is played by hereditarily fixed reactions to external events - instincts. They serve animals of a certain species as a way to satisfy their needs, ensure the survival and reproduction of the population (communities). The object of changes (necessary for the transformation of external conditions) is the organism, the body of the animal. Of course, it would be an extreme simplification to describe the biological type of life activity only within the framework of the formula sr ("stimulus-response"). In the instinctive type of life there is a place for both learning and modification of innate stereotypes. Animals in the experiment are able to solve problems of ingenuity, in natural conditions they show instant resourcefulness. Moreover, ethological scientists talk about the presence of feelings in animals (devotion, disinterested love for the owner), etc.

It is important to understand that the type of organization of animal life is no less (and maybe more) complex than that of humans. After all, animals have millions (!) Years of selection of forms of interaction with each other and the external environment. Despite the decisive role in the biological type of the genetic program, studies of animal behavior carried out in recent decades have discovered the most complicated world relationships, regulated by finely adjusted and at the same time plastic mechanisms of behavior. The biological type of life cannot be called the lowest, i.e. less developed mode of activity compared to the cultural way. This is another, qualitatively different kind of activity, the peculiarities of the functioning of which we are gradually learning only now.

Let us give just one example of the possibilities of adaptation and development of means of protection and survival from the animal world. Everyone knows that bats use an ultrasonic locator (sonar) to capture and locate their victims. More recently, it has been found that some insects (a species of butterflies) have developed defensive reactions against bats. Some are sensitive to the touch of the ultrasonic locator, while others have a more complex multi-level protection mechanism, which allows not only to feel the touch of the ultrasonic beam, but also to create strong interference, leading to a temporary "jamming of the sonar" of the bat, to the loss of its ability to navigate. space. The detection of such a phenomenon in animals became possible only with the help of modern supersensitive electronic technology. Summing up a brief description of the instinctive type of life, it should be emphasized its complexity as a form of organization of living things and the presence within it of a number of phenomena, from which the mode of human life later developed (features of group behavior, organization of collective interaction in a flock, etc.).

The anatomical and physiological structure of the human body does not predetermine any one type of activity in fixed natural conditions... Man is universal by nature, he can exist anywhere in the world, master a wide variety of activities, etc. But he becomes a man only in the presence of a cultural environment, in communication with other creatures similar to himself. In the absence of this condition, he does not even realize his biological program as a living being, and he dies prematurely. Outside of culture, a person as a living being dies. Throughout cultural history, a person organically remains unchanged (in the sense of the absence of speciation) - all changes are transferred to his "inorganic body" of culture. Man as a single biological species has created at the same time a rich variety of cultural forms that express his universal nature. In the words of the famous biologist E. Mayr, a person specialized in despecialization, i.e. he objectively has a basis for choice, an element of freedom.

Human activity is mediated. Between himself and nature, he places objects of material culture (tools of labor, domesticated animals and plants, dwelling, clothing, if necessary). Mediators - words, images, cultural skills - exist in the interpersonal realm. The entire organism of culture consists of complexly organized mediators, cultural institutions. In this sense, culture is viewed as a kind of superorganism, the inorganic body of a person. Human activity does not obey the "stimulus-response" scheme, is not only a response to external stimuli. It contains a mediating moment of reflection, a conscious action in accordance with a goal that exists in an ideal form in the form of a plan, image, intention. (It was not for nothing that the Russian scientist I.M. Sechenov considered thinking as an inhibited, i.e. mediated by a period of time, reflex.)

The ideally planning nature of the activity is a fundamental feature that makes it possible for the existence and constant reproduction of culture. Having an idea of a thing or action, a person embodies it in external reality. He objectifies the emerging ideas and images in material or ideal form. A specific feature of the cultural mode of activity is the outward movement of its products. E. Fromm spoke about the need for external realization of a person's creative ability; M. Heidegger used a metaphor to describe this process: the concept of "being thrown into the world"; Hegel designated this phenomenon as objectification (ideas).

The peculiarity of the human mode of activity is such that another person can understand the meaning of the purpose of this or that materialized cultural product. Hegel called this de-objectification. Let's give the simplest example of such a phenomenon. By the forms of tools of labor of prehistoric eras discovered by archaeologists, one can understand their function, purpose, the "idea" that their creator had in mind. This mode of activity opens up the possibility of understanding the cultures of long-disappeared peoples.

At the same time, we must not forget that a person acts not only with material objects, but also with ideal forms (mental activity of the most varied kinds). This determines the division of cultural reality into ideal and objective-material. At the same time, the first acquires an independent development in culture and becomes the most important regulator of relationships between people. The presence of an ideally planning feature of activity allows us to talk about models, patterns of desired behavior and actions that an individual assimilates in each culture.

A person can transform the world with the help of imagination, in the same way as a child in childhood changes ordinary objects into fabulous ones in play reality. K. Lorenz called this creative aspect of activity the ability to visualize, to create situations that have no analogue in reality.

An important aspect of human activity is its symbolic and symbolic nature. The most common signs in culture are words, the meaning of which is not associated with a material, sound form. Many rituals, or rather their cultural purpose, functions, do not directly follow from the content of ritual actions, but have symbolic meaning.

The origins of the anthropological direction are in the works of physiologists, doctors and psychiatrists of the late 17th - early 19th centuries. For example, even the French phrenologist F.I. Gall argued (1825) that the behavior of criminals "depends on the nature of these individuals and on the conditions in which they find themselves." Among criminals, he singled out natural-born violators of the law.

Nevertheless, the Italian psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso, who wrote the book "The Criminal Man" in 1876, is considered the founder of the anthropological school in criminology. The criminal is an atavistic being, he argued, which reproduces in its instincts primitive man and lower animals.

Lombroso's theory is characterized by three main theses:

there are natural born criminals, that is, people who are doomed from birth to sooner or later take a criminal path;
human crime inherited;
criminals are different from other people, not only for the internal, mental properties of the personality, but also by external, physical data, by which they can be recognized in the mass of the population.

More restrained judgments were made by natural scientists, psychiatrists and lawyers of the time. The very first tests of Ch. Lombroso's thesis about the physical characteristics of criminals did not receive the slightest confirmation. In 1913, the English forensic scientist S. Goring compared the physical characteristics of prisoners in English prisons with students at Cambridge (1,000), Oxford and Aberdeen (969), as well as with military personnel and college teachers (118). It turned out that there are no physical differences between them. A similar study with the same results was carried out in 1915 by the American V. Gile.

It should be noted that over time, C. Lombroso himself somewhat softened his theory:

he admitted that in addition to "natural" criminals, there are "criminals by passion", casual criminals, and also the mentally ill;
in his next book "Crime", published in translation into Russian in 1900 (reprinted in 1994), he agreed that "every crime has many reasons in its origin", to which he included not only personality traits of the offender (including heredity), but also meteorological, climatic, economic, professional and other factors.

In Russia, C. Lombroso's views were supported with reservations by D. Dril, N. Neklyudov, psychiatrists V. Chizh, P. Tarnovskaya.

Assessing the role of Lombroso in the development of criminological science, the French scientist J. Van Kahn wrote: “Lombroso's merit was that he awakened thought in the field of criminology, created systems and invented bold and witty hypotheses, but he had to abandon subtle analysis and witty conclusions. to his students. "

Contemporary views

In the XX century. scientists no longer returned to the thesis about the physical differences between criminals and other people. But the ideas of the natural born criminal and the inheritance of his properties continued to attract their attention.

In numerous domestic and foreign textbooks and monographs on the problems of psychology and genetics of behavior, one can find the results of the latest research, reflecting the most complex interrelationships of genetic and environmental characteristics of a person, which make it possible to get closer to unraveling the main mystery of criminology.

Behavioral geneticists generally conclude that a person is a product of the joint impact of both biological and social factors, in general, directed by a genetic background... At the same time, scientists conducting research in the field of behavioral genetics argue that many developmental factors that were previously considered products of the environment can be derivatives of genetics, but the specific environment limits the range that can be caused by a specific genotype. According to the American psychologist David Shaffer, "behavior is 100% hereditary and 100% environmental, since these two sets of factors seem to be inextricably linked."

According to another American psychologist, David Myers, from the moment of conception to adulthood, we are the product of the violent interaction of our genetic predisposition with the environment. “Our genes influence the life experiences that shape our personalities. There is no need to oppose nature and upbringing, just as it is impossible to oppose the length and width of a football field in order to calculate its area. "

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