The perception of external signs of a person, their correlation with his personal characteristics, interpretation and forecasting on this basis of his actions constitute social perception. It necessarily contains an assessment of the other and the formation of an attitude towards him in emotional and behavioral terms: an emotional assessment of the other, an attempt to understand the reasons for his actions and predict his behavior, building his own strategy and behavior. On the basis of the external side of behavior, we seem to "read" the inner world of a person, trying to understand it and develop our own emotional attitude to what is perceived.

There are four main social perception functions:

knowing yourself;

cognition of a communication partner;

organization joint activities based on mutual understanding;

establishing emotional relationships.

The perceptual side of communication includes the process of interpersonal perception by one person of another. The idea of ​​another person depends on the level of development of one's own self-awareness, the idea of ​​one's own "I" (I-concept). Awareness of oneself through another person has two sides: identification (assimilating oneself to another) and reflection (a person's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner).

What do people first of all pay attention to when evaluating a communication partner?

These, the most essential properties of the observed include: the expression of his face (facial expressions ), ways of expressing feelings (expression), gestures and postures, gait appearance (clothes, hair), features of voice and speech.

The methods of interpersonal perception include: 1) people's cognition and understanding of each other ( identification, empathy, attraction) , 2) knowledge of oneself ( reflection ) in the process of communication; 3) predicting the behavior of a communication partner ( causal attribution ).

Identification - this is a way of knowing another person, in which the assumption about his inner state is built on the basis of an attempt to put himself in the place of a communication partner, there is an assimilation of oneself to another. When identifying with another person, one learns his norms, values, behavior, tastes and habits.

Empathy - this is an emotional inclusion in the feeling of another person or empathy for another person. Empathy is the higher, the more a person is able to imagine how the same event will be perceived by different people, and the better he is able to understand the right to existence of these different points of view. The ability to comprehend emotionally has different levels of development: lower (a kind of blindness to the experiences of another); medium (individual views); the highest (the ability to feel and accept the feelings of another).

Attraction (from Lat. "to attract, to attract") - is a form of cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling towards him.

Reflection - This is a mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of communication, which is based on the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. This is no longer just knowing the other, but knowing how the other understands me, that is, a kind of doubled process of mirroring each other. The general model of reflection has the following content: if a person (A) has a wrong idea about himself (A "), about others (B") and, most importantly, about how others perceive him (A ""), then his understanding with them will be excluded.

Causal attribution - a mechanism for interpreting the actions and feelings of another person.

Each person has their own favorite schemes of causality, i.e. common explanations for someone else's behavior:

1) people with personal attribution in any situation, they tend to find the culprit of what happened, attribute the cause of what happened to a specific person;

2) in case of addiction to adverbial attribution people tend to blame the circumstances first of all;

3) at incentive attribution a person sees the cause of what happened in the object to which the action was directed (the vase fell because it was not standing well) or in the victim himself (it is his own fault that he was hit by a car).

When studying the process of causal attribution, the desire to clarify the causes of behavior, various patterns have been identified. For example, people most often attribute the cause of success to themselves, and failure to the circumstances. The nature of the attribution also depends on the degree of participation of a person in the event under discussion. The score will be different in cases if he was a participant (accomplice) or an observer. The general pattern is that as the significance of what happened, the subjects are inclined to move from adverbial and stimulus attribution to personal (i.e., to look for the cause of what happened in the conscious actions of the individual).

To the effects of perception each other's people include:

halo effect- a general favorable impression leads to positive assessments and unknown qualities of the perceived employee, and, conversely, a general unfavorable impression contributes to the prevalence of negative assessments;

effect of novelty and primacy- when perceiving a stranger, the previously presented information prevails. For example, if we say that an employee is a violator of labor discipline, and then that he is a leader in production, then the former will prevail (the effect of primacy). When a familiar person is perceived, the effect of novelty acts - the latter, i.e. newer information appears to be the most significant;

stereotyping effect- often arises in relation to a person's group affiliation, for example, professional (accountant, teacher, military, etc.).

« projection», In the process of which the assessed is attributed to the assessor's feelings and thoughts;

« echo»- transfer of the employee's success in any area to another area of ​​activity, in which he does not achieve success;

« attribution»- subconsciously attributing to the employee the abilities and traits that the manager noticed from another person who reminds him of this employee;

« faith at first sight”, That the first impression is the most correct. At the same time, research shows that the first impression is sometimes wrong, because it relies on the subconscious expectations of the leader, and not on instant penetration into person's character with whom he is talking.

To illustrate the above-mentioned effects, the results of the research of the Australian psychologist Paul R. Wilson are of interest, who proved that such an indicator external appearance a person's height in the eyes of outsiders is not always equal to the actual. Wilson introduced the same person to five different groups of students, assigning him a new status each time, and then asked the students to determine his height by eye. The results were amazing. When a person was introduced as a student, his height reached 171 cm, but as soon as he was called an assistant of the department, his height rose to 178 cm. With the title of senior teacher, his height reached 180 cm, and, finally, the height of the "professor" was 184 cm. These and other effects of perception can be used, for example, introducing someone else, planning in advance the sequence and content of the impact.

An important area of ​​research in social perception is the study of the process of forming the first impression of another person. The three most typical schemes for the formation of the first impression of a person are described. Each scheme is triggered by a specific factor present in the dating situation. The factors of superiority, attractiveness of a partner and attitude towards the observer are distinguished.

The superiority factor - launches the scheme of social perception in a situation of inequality of partners (more precisely, when the observer feels the superiority of the partner in some important parameter for him - intelligence, height, material status or some other). The essence of what is happening is that a person who surpasses the observer in an important parameter is rated by him much higher in other significant parameters. In other words, there is a general personal reassessment of him. Moreover, the more insecure the observer feels at the moment, in this particular situation, the less effort is needed to launch this scheme. Thus, in an extreme situation, people are often willing to trust those whom they would not listen to in a calm environment.

The perception scheme is as follows. When we meet a person who is superior to us in some parameter important to us, we evaluate him somewhat more positively than we would if he were equal to us. If we are dealing with a person whom we are superior in some way, then we underestimate him. Moreover, superiority is recorded in one parameter, while overestimation (or underestimation) occurs in many parameters. This perceptual scheme begins to work not with any, but only with really important, meaningful inequality for us.

By what criteria can we judge the superiority of a person, for example, in social status or in intellectual? To determine this parameter, we have at our disposal two main sources of information: a person's clothing, his appearance, including such attributes as room decoration, car, etc .; and the demeanor of a person.

Attractiveness factor - ensures the implementation of the scheme associated with the perception of the partner as extremely attractive in appearance. The mistake made in this case is that people also tend to overestimate an outwardly attractive person according to other important psychological and social parameters.

The factor of relation to the observer - regulates the inclusion of the partner's perception scheme, which is based on the nature of the relationship to the observer. Perceptual error in this case is that people who treat us well or share some ideas that are important to us, we tend to evaluate positively according to other indicators.

The perception of other people is greatly influenced by the process stereotyping ... Under social stereotype is understood as a stable image or idea about any phenomena or people, characteristic of representatives of a particular social group. The most famous are ethnic stereotypes - images of typical representatives of certain nations who are endowed with fixed features of appearance and character traits (for example, stereotypical ideas about the stiffness and thinness of the English, the frivolity of the French, the eccentricity of Italians, characteristic of our culture).

Perceiving the appearance, movements, actions, and in general human activity, we get the opportunity to penetrate into his inner psychological content, to learn beliefs, needs, interests, feelings, character, personality abilities. Therefore, knowledge, and even more so the psychological data obtained about this or that person, require great care and tact in their use.

In the life of a particular person as a separate representative of the human community, his personality and his psyche are presented in an indissoluble unity. Personal development cannot be reduced to the development of cognitive, emotional and volitional components. The determinant of personality development is an activity-mediated type of relationship that develops in a person with the most referential (significant for him) group (or groups).

Perception, perception (from lat.perceptio) - cognitive process forming a subjective picture of the world

This is a mental process, which consists in the reflection of an object or phenomenon as a whole with its direct effect on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception is one of the biological mental functions that determine the complex process of receiving and transforming information received with the help of the senses, which form a subjective integral image of an object that affects analyzers through a set of sensations initiated by this object. As a form of sensory reflection of an object, perception includes the detection of the object as a whole, the differentiation of individual features in the object, the allocation of informative content in it that is adequate to the goal of the action, and the formation of a sensory image.

Perception is much more than transmission nervous system neural impulses to certain parts of the brain. Perception also presupposes the subject's awareness of the fact of stimulation and certain ideas about it, and in order for this to happen, it is first necessary to feel the "input" of sensory information, that is, to experience a sensation. In other words, perception is the process of understanding the stimulation of sensory receptors.

Perceptions

With unintentional perception, we are not guided by a predetermined goal or task - to perceive a given object. Perception is directed by external circumstances. Intentional perception, on the contrary, from the very beginning is regulated by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to become familiar with it. Intentional perception can be included in any activity and carried out in the course of its execution. But sometimes perception can also act as a relatively independent activity.

Observation is an active form of human sensory cognition of reality. When observing as an independent purposeful reality, from the very beginning, a verbal formulation of goals and objectives is assumed, directing observation to certain objects.

Long-term observation exercises lead to the development of observation, that is, the ability to notice characteristic, but subtle, at first glance, seemingly insignificant features of objects.

So, perception is a visual-figurative reflection of those acting in this moment on the sense organs of objects and phenomena of reality in the aggregate of their various properties and parts.

Perception properties

The objectivity of perception is expressed in the so-called act of objectification, that is, in referring information received from the external world to this world. Objectivity, not being an innate quality, performs an orienting and regulating function in practical activity. Without the participation of movement, our perceptions would not have the quality of objectivity, that is, attribution to objects of the external world. Objectivity as a quality of perception plays a special role in the regulation of behavior. We usually define objects not by their appearance, but in accordance with their practical purpose or their main property.

Integrity

Unlike sensation, which reflects individual properties of an object, perception gives its integral image. It is formed on the basis of generalization of knowledge about individual properties and qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations. The components of sensation are so firmly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or separate parts of the object (velvet, marble) act directly on a person. These impressions arise conditioned reflex due to the connection formed in life experience between visual and tactile stimuli.

Structurality

The integrity of perception is also associated with its structure. Perception to a large extent does not correspond to our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over time. If a person listens to some melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when a new note arrives.

The constancy of perception is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when its conditions change. Due to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system (a set of analyzers that provide a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive the objects around us as relatively constant. To the greatest extent, constancy is observed in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects.

Meaningfulness of perception

Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sensory organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Human perception is closely related to thinking. Consciously perceiving an object means mentally naming it, that is, attributing it to a certain group, class, generalizing it into a word. Even at the sight of an unfamiliar object, we try to establish in it a resemblance to our acquaintances.

Apperception

Perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the subject himself. It is not the eye and the ear that perceive, but a specific living person, and therefore, the characteristics of a person's personality are always reflected in perception. The dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life, on the characteristics of his personality, is called apperception.

Perception is a Latin word meaning perception, which is used to describe cognitive processes that are closely related to the display of various life situations, phenomena or objects. In the case when such perception is directed to social spheres, the term "social perception" is used to characterize this phenomenon. Every person faces manifestations of social perception on a daily basis. Let's take a look at the various psychological mechanisms social perception.

Perception, translated from Latin (perceptio), means "perception"

The concept of social perception dates back to the times of the ancient world. Many philosophers and artists of that time made a significant contribution to the formation of this sphere. It should also be noted that this concept is important in the field of psychology.

Perception is one of the important functions in mental perception, which manifests itself as a process with a complex structure. Thanks to this process, a person not only receives various information from the senses, but also transforms it. The impact on various analyzers leads to the formation of integral images in the consciousness of the individual. Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that perception is characterized as one of the forms of sensory reproduction.

Perception is based on the characterization of individual features that help to form information based on accurate sensory images.

The considered cognitive function is closely related to skills such as memory, logical thinking and concentration. This concept depends on the strength of the influence of life stimuli, which are endowed with an emotional color. Perception consists of structures such as meaning and context.

Perception is actively studied by representatives of various fields, including psychologists, cyberneticists and physiologists. Differential experiments use various techniques including modeling different situations, experiments and the empirical form of analysis. Understanding how social perception works is essential in the field of practical psychology. It is this tool that acts as a foundation in the development of various systems affecting the sphere of human activity.

Influence of perceptual factors

Perceptual factors fall into two categories: external and internal influences. Among the external factors, criteria such as movement, number of repetitions, contrast, size and depth of manifestation should be highlighted. Among the internal factors, experts distinguish the following:

1. Stimulus- motivation to achieve goals that are of high importance to the individual.
2. Setting the perception of the individual- getting into certain life situations, a person is based on previous experience.
3. An experience- various life difficulties experienced, have an impact on the perception of the surrounding world.
4. Individual characteristics of perception- depending on the type of personality (optimism or pessimism), a person perceives the same life difficulties in a positive or unfavorable light.
5. Perception of your own "I"- all events occurring in a person's life are assessed on the basis of a personal prism of perception.

The influence of psychological perception on interaction with society

Social perception in psychology is a term used to describe the process of an individual's assessment and understanding of the people around him, his own personality or social objects. Such objects are composed of social societies and various groups. The term in question began to be used in psychology in the forties of the last century. This concept was first used American psychologist Jerome Bruner. Thanks to the work of this scientist, researchers were able to consider various problems associated with the perception of the surrounding world from a different angle.

Sociality is inherent in every person. Throughout its life path, a person builds communicative connections with people around him. The formation of interpersonal relationships leads to the formation of separate groups that are linked by the same worldview or similar interests. Based on this, we can say that a person, as a person, participates in different types relationships between people. The nature of the relationship to society depends on the degree of personal perception and how a person evaluates the people around him. On initial stage the construction of a communicative connection is the assessment of external qualities. Following the appearance, the model of the interlocutor's behavior is assessed, which makes it possible to form a certain level of relations.

It is on the basis of the above qualities that the image of the perception of the people around is compiled. Social perception has many forms of manifestation. In most cases, this term is used to characterize personal perception. Each person perceives not only his own personality, but also the social group to which he belongs. In addition, there is a form of perception that is characteristic only of members of such groups. It is perception based on the framework of a social group that is the second form of manifestation of perception. The last form of perception is group perception. Each group perceives both its own members and members of other groups.

The function of social perception is to assess the activities of the people around. Each individual subjects to a careful analysis of the individual characteristics of the temperament of others, their external attractiveness, lifestyle and actions. Based on this analysis, an idea of ​​the people around them and their behavior is formed.

The mechanism of social perception

Social perception is the process on the basis of which the forecast of the behavior model and the reaction of society in various living conditions is carried out. The mechanisms of interpersonal perception presented below allow us to study the subtleties of this process:

1. Attraction- the study of the people around, which is based on a positive perception. Thanks to this mechanism, people gain the ability to closely interact with others, which has a positive effect on the formation of sensory relationships. A striking example of this function is the manifestation of love, sympathy and friendship.
2. Identification- this mechanism is used as an intuitive study of personality based on modeling various situations. Based on his own beliefs, a person analyzes the internal state of others. Example: when making assumptions about the state of the interlocutor, it is common for a person to mentally imagine himself in his place.
3. Casual attribution- is a mechanism for creating a forecast of the behavior of others, based on the characteristics of his own personality. When a person is faced with a lack of understanding of the motives of the actions of others, he begins to predict the behavior model of other people, based on his own feelings, stimuli and other individual properties.
4. Reflection- a self-knowledge mechanism based on interaction in society. This "tool" is based on the skills of presenting one's own personality, "through the eyes" of the interlocutor. As an example, one should imagine the dialogue between Vasya and Pasha. At least six "personalities" take part in this type of communication: Vasya's personality, his idea of ​​his own personality and the representation of Vasya's personality through the eyes of Pasha. Exactly the same images are recreated in the consciousness of Pasha.
5. Stereotyping- a mechanism for creating a stable image of the surrounding people and phenomena. It is important to note that such images have characteristics depending on social factors. As an example of stereotyping, we can cite the persistent idea that most outwardly attractive people are prone to narcissism, representatives of Germany are pedantic, and law enforcement officials think straightforwardly.
6. Empathy- the ability of emotional compassion, the provision of psychological support and participation in the lives of people around. This mechanism is a key skill in the work of specialists in the field of psychology, medicine and pedagogy.

The above types of cognition of the personality of others are based not only on the physical characteristics of a person, but also on the nuances of the behavior model. Building close communicative ties is facilitated by the participation of both partners in the conversation. Social perception depends on the stimuli, feelings and lifestyle of each of the participants in interpersonal relationships. An important component of this cognitive function is the subjective analysis of the surrounding individuals.

The importance of first impressions

An in-depth study of social perception has made it possible to identify key factors that influence the strength of impressions about a person. According to experts, during their acquaintance, most people pay increased attention to their hair, eyes and facial expressions. Based on this, we can say that a friendly smile during dating is perceived as a sign of cordiality and a positive attitude.

There are three main points that are decisive in the process of forming the first impressions of a new personality. Among such factors, experts include the degree of superiority, attractiveness and attitude.

1. "Superiority" it is most acutely expressed in a situation when the personality of a particular individual is in some way superior, is perceived as dominant in other spheres as well. Against this background, there is global change in assessing their own qualities. It is important to note that people with low self-esteem are more susceptible to the influence of the "superiority of others". This explains the fact that in critical conditions people express confidence in those who were previously treated negatively.
2. "Attractiveness", which is a feature of social perception - a factor on the basis of which the degree of attractiveness of others is analyzed. The main mistake of such a perception is that, paying increased attention to external qualities, a person forgets about the analysis of the psychological and social characteristics of others.
3. "Attitude" based on the perception of a person, depending on the attitude towards his personality. The negative effect of this perception is based on the fact that when good attitude and sharing life position, a person begins to overestimate the positive qualities of others.

Methodology for the development of perceptual perception

According to the famous psychologist Dale Carnegie, a simple smile is enough to evoke sympathy from others. That is why, wishing to build a strong communicative connection with others, you should learn the correct smile. Today, there are many psychological techniques for the development of facial gestures that help to enhance the transmission of experienced emotions. Controlling your own facial expressions allows you not only to improve the quality of social perception, but also to get the opportunity to better understand others.

One of the most effective methods for developing social perception skills is Ekman's practice. The basis of this method is to focus on three areas of the human face. These areas include the forehead, chin, and nose. It is these zones that best reflect emotional states such as feelings of anger, fear, disgust, or sadness.

The ability to analyze facial gestures allows you to decipher the feelings that the interlocutor is experiencing. This practice has become widespread in the field of psychology, thanks to which the specialist gets the opportunity to build a communicative connection with persons with mental disorders.

Perception is a complex mechanism of human mental perception. The performance of this system depends on many different external and internal factors. These factors include age characteristics, existing experience and individual personality traits.

Perception concept

Definition 1

Perception is a cognitive process of direct active display by a person of various phenomena, objects, events, situations.

If this cognition is directed at social objects, then the phenomenon is called social perception. The mechanisms of social perception can be observed on a daily basis in our daily life.

The mention of perception was already encountered in the ancient world. A huge contribution to the development of this concept was made by philosophers, physiologists, artists, physicists. But most great importance psychology gives this concept.

Perception is an important mental function of cognition, which manifests itself as a complex process of transformation and receipt of sensory information. Through perception, the individual forms an integral image of the object that affects the analyzers. Thus, perception is a kind of sensory display.

Characteristics and properties of perception

This phenomenon has the following main characteristics:

• identification of individual signs;
• correct absorption of information;
• formation of an accurate sensory image.

Perception is associated with logical thinking, attention and memory. It depends on a person's motivation and has a certain kind of emotional coloring.

Basic properties of perception:

• structure,
• apperception,
• objectivity,
• context,
• meaningfulness.

Perceptual factors

Perceptual factors are of two types:

• internal,
• external.

External factors include:

• intensity,
• the size,
• novelty,
• contrast,
• repeatability,
• traffic,
• recognizability.

Intrinsic factors of perception include:

• motivation, which consists in the fact that a person sees what he considers important or what he badly needs;
• attitudes of personal perception, when the individual expects to see what he saw earlier in a similar situation;
• an experience that enables a person to perceive what was taught to him by past experience;
• personality traits.

Interaction with society through perception

The concept of a variety of our perception is widely used in psychology - social perception.

Definition 2

Social perception is a person's understanding and assessment of himself, other people, and other social objects.

This term was introduced in 1947 by the psychologist D. Bruner. The introduction of this concept into psychology allowed scientists to look differently at the problems and tasks of human perception. Man is a social being and is the subject of a large number of different relationships. The positive or negative attitude of the individual towards the people around him depends on the perception and assessment of communication partners.

Social perception takes several forms:

• human perception;
• perception by group members;
• group perception.

Social Perception Mechanisms

Perception has certain features of the functioning of its mechanisms. The following mechanisms of social perception exist:

• stereotyping, which is the formation of a persistent image or idea of ​​people and phenomena inherent to all representatives of one social group;
• identification, expressed in the intuitive identification and cognition of a person or a group in a communication situation, in which there is a comparison or comparison of the internal states of partners;
• empathy, which implies emotional empathy with others, the ability to understand other people by providing them with emotional support and getting used to their experiences;
• reflection, that is, self-knowledge through interaction with other people;
• attraction - knowledge of other people based on a positive enduring feeling;
• causal attribution, which is the process of predicting the feelings and actions of the people around.

The specificity of interpersonal cognition lies in the fact that it takes into account both various physical characteristics and characteristics of behavior. Therefore, social perception has a huge dependence on emotions, motives, opinions, attitudes, prejudices of both partners. In social perception, there is also a subjective assessment of another person.

Perception is a complex mechanism of psychological interaction between the individual and the object perceived by him. This interaction occurs under the influence of a large number of factors.

• Objectivity - objects are perceived not as an incoherent set of sensations, but are images of specific objects.

• Structurality - an object is perceived by consciousness already as a modeled structure abstracted from sensations.

• Apperception - perception is influenced by the general content of the human psyche.

• Contact (constancy) - perception is influenced by the circumstances in which it occurs, despite this perception remains relatively unchanged.

• Meaningfulness - the object is consciously perceived, mentally called (associated with a certain category), belongs to a certain class

1. Selection - the selection of an object of perception from the information flow
2. Organization - an object is identified by a set of attributes
3. Categorization and assignment of properties of objects of this class to an object

Perception factors

External

• The size
• Intensity (physically or emotionally)
• Contrast (contradiction with environment)
• Traffic
• Repeatability
• Novelty and recognition

Internal

• The perceptual attitude is the expectation to see what should be seen from past experience.
• Needs and motivation - a person sees what he needs or what he considers important.
• Experience - a person perceives that aspect of the stimulus that has been taught by past experience.
• Self-concept - the perception of the world is grouped around the perception of self.
• Personal characteristics - optimists see the world and events in a positive light, pessimists, on the contrary, in an unfavorable one.

• The principle of resonance - the one that corresponds to the needs and values ​​of the individual is perceived faster than the inappropriate.
• The principle of protection is that opposing human expectations is perceived worse.
• The principle of alertness - those that threaten the human psyche are recognized faster than others.

Forms and principles of perception

• Figure - background - perception distinguishes the figure from the background.
• Constancy - objects are perceived the same for a long time.
• Grouping - monotonous stimuli are grouped into structures.

• Proximity - nearby is perceived together.
• Similarity - similarity by some sign is perceived together.
• Closedness - a person tends to fill in the gaps in the figure.
• Integrity - a person tends to see continuous forms rather than complex combinations.
• Adjacency - close in time and space is perceived as one.
• Common area - stimuli identified in one area are perceived as a group.

Perception result

The result of the perception process is the constructed image.

Image - subjective vision the real world perceived with the help of the senses.

Having received an image, a person (or other subject) produces definition of the situation, that is, it evaluates it, and then makes a decision about its behavior.

Perception in zoopsychology

Perception is inherent mainly in the highest living beings; in weak forms, allowing to speak only of the rudiments of perception, something similar can be found in creatures of the middle stages of evolution.

Perception in the theory of the psyche

Social perception

Social perception - perception aimed at creating an idea of ​​oneself, other people, social groups and social phenomena.

The term was coined by Jerome Bruner in 1947 to denote the phenomena of social determination of the processes of perception. The modern interpretation of the term was given within the framework of social psychology.

The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.

Perceptual effects

Some special manifestations of inaccuracy of perception are inherent in social perception, called laws, effects or errors of perception.

• Stereotyping effects:

• Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown features.
• Sequence Effects:

• Primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the next.
• The novelty effect - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known person, loved one is given more importance than all the information received about him earlier.

• Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personality trait.
• The effect of presence - the better a person owns something, the better he does it in front of others than alone.
• Advance effect - the lack of previously attributed non-existent merits leads to disappointment.
• The condescension effect - the leader exaggerates the positive traits of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a conniving and, to some extent, democratic style).
• The effect of hyper-exacting - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of his subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for a leader of an authoritarian style).
• The effect of physiognomic reduction - the conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of physical features.
• Beauty effect - more positive traits are attributed to an outwardly more attractive person.
• The expectation effect - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
• Intra-group favoritism - “ours” seem to be better.

• The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - in time there is a tendency towards the opposite intragroup favoritism.

• Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the “other” treats him as he relates to the “other”.
• The phenomenon of the assumption of similarity - a person believes that “his own” treat other people in the same way as he does.
• Projection effect - a person proceeds from the fact that others have the same qualities as him.
• The phenomenon of ignoring the informational value of something that has not happened - information about what could have happened, but did not happen is ignored.

Attribution

Attribution - attribution of characteristics to oneself or another person.

1. Observing human behavior
2. Inference about a person's intentions
3. Ascribing to a person the motives of behavior

Attribution styles:

• Internal (dispositive) attribution - linking human behavior with its characteristics.
• External attribution - linking a person's behavior to a situation.

Factors that determine the attribution style:

• Consensus - situational motives are often attributed to behavior inherent in many, and personal ones to non-standard ones.
• Intentional behavior - personal motives are often attributed to deliberate behavior, and situational ones to unusual ones.
• Consistency - personal motives are often attributed to consistent behavior, and situational ones to individual ones.

Fundamental attribution error - the tendency to explain behavior by dispositional reasons to the detriment of situational ones.

Reasons for the fundamental attribution error:

• False consent is the perception of one's behavior as typical, and different from it as abnormal.
• Unequal opportunity - ignoring the characteristics of the role position.
• Ignoring the informational value of what did not happen - what was not done should also be the basis for assessing behavior.
• Greater confidence in facts than in judgments - this is due to the "figure-ground" mechanism
• Ease of constructing false correlations - features are mistakenly combined as necessarily accompanying each other.

Western individualism creates a tendency towards personal attribution to the detriment of situational attribution to a greater extent than Eastern collectivism.

It is also influenced by the locus of control (the external is less prone to fundamental attribution error).

A person is inclined to explain his successes dispositionally, and failures - situationally, for other people's successes and failures, the opposite is true.

For the doer, the figure is the situation, for the observer, the situation is the background, and the figure is the doer. Therefore, the doer is less prone to fundamental attribution error, and the observer is more.

Impression

Forming an impression

Forming an impression - the process of creating your impressions of others.

Impressions are:

• Behavior patterns
• Abstraction

Managing experiences

Managing experiences - behavior aimed at forming and controlling the impression of other people about themselves.

Experience management tactics:

• Strengthening your own position
• Strengthening the position of the interlocutor

Self-presentation - behavior aimed at creating a favorable impression of oneself or one corresponding to someone's ideals.

According to a 1996 study by Gordon, the success rate of impression management tactics is distributed as follows:

1. Presenting the interlocutor in the best possible light
2. Agreeing with the opinion of the interlocutor.
3. Self-presentation
4. Combination 1-3
5. Service

Literature

• Organizational behavior / Gromova O.N., Latfullin G.R .. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008. - 432 p. - ISBN 978-5-91180-873-0

Notes (edit)

see also

Links

• http://www.psy.msu.ru/illusion/ - collection of various visual illusions
• Perception of the world within oneself (video)

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See what "Perception" is in other dictionaries:

- (lat.perceptio). 1) reception, collection, increase of duties. 2) unconscious perception, sensation attributed to the reason that produced it (psychotic). Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov AN, 1910. PERCEPTION [lat. ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (lat. perceptio presentation, perception, from percipio feel, perceive), in modern. psychology is the same as perception. Leibniz used the term "P." to denote vague and unconscious. perceptions ("impressions") as opposed to ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

PERCEPTION- (from Lat. percipio I perceive), perception (see). Environment affects us in the course of our activity, and we perceive it, perceive it. The organ of P., as well as of the psyche in general, is our brain. P. is not an isolated process, but ... ... Great medical encyclopedia

Perception, perception Dictionary of Russian synonyms. perception noun, number of synonyms: 2 perception (5) ... Synonym dictionary

perception- (from Latin perceptio perception) the process of direct active reflection by the cognitive sphere of a person of external and internal objects (objects), situations, events, phenomena, etc. (see perception). A Brief Psychological Dictionary. R … Big psychological encyclopedia

- (from the Latin perceptio representation, perception), the same as perception ... Modern encyclopedia

- (from Lat. perceptio representation perception), the same as perception. G.V. Leibniz has a vague and unconscious perception as opposed to a clear awareness of apperception ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

PERCEPTION, perception, wives. (lat.perceptio) (philosophy). Perception. Explanatory dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

See PERCEPTION. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

PERCEPTION- (from Latin perceptio - perception). Sensory perception, reflection of things in consciousness through the senses ... New Dictionary methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)