Moskovsky State University MESI

Tver branch of MESI

Department of Humanities and Socio-Economic Disciplines

Test

On the subject "General rhetoric"

Topic: "The role of rhetoric in modern society"

Work performed by: student of group 38-MO-11

Mistrov A.S.

Checked by the teacher: Zharov V.A.

Tver, 2009

Introduction. 2

1. What is rhetoric or why are people given language, speech and word ?. 3

2. The role of language in the formation of a person's personality. 5

3. The role of rhetoric in public life. 10

4. The role of rhetoric in professional activities. thirteen

Conclusion. 17

Literature. eighteen

Rhetoric - the classic science of an expedient and appropriate word - is in demand today as a tool for managing and improving the life of society, for the formation of personality through the word.

Rhetoric teaches to think, educates a sense of the word, forms taste, establishes the integrity of the attitude. Through advice and recommendations, thoughtful and expressive texts, rhetorical education dictates the style of thought and life of modern society, giving a person confidence in today's and tomorrow's existence.

Rhetoric is the science of oratory and eloquence. The linguistic features of oral public speaking, bringing rhetoric closer to poetics, presuppose the use of techniques in a rhetorical work designed to convince the listener, his expressive processing. Teaching public (oratory) speech provides for the formation of various skills (linguistic, logical, psychological, etc.) aimed at developing the rhetorical competence of students, i.e. ability and willingness to exercise effective communication.

The pathos of research in the traditional Russian science of language is determined by the desire of scientists to describe the language from the point of view of its internal structure... The task of describing the linguistic structure is noble and urgent. However, with such an approach, a person, a person who perceives and generates speech, is overboard.

The gift of speech is one of the greatest abilities of a person, raising him above the world of all living things and making him a person himself. The word is a means of communication between people, a way of exchanging information, a tool for influencing the consciousness and actions of another person.

Gold rusts and steel decays.

The marble is crumbling. Everything is ready for death.

Sadness is the strongest on earth -

And the royal Word is more durable.

(A. Akhmatova)

Word proficiency is highly valued, but not everyone is proficient in the word.

Moreover, the overwhelming majority is hardly capable of correctly expressing their thoughts on paper, all the more they do not own rhetoric in its true understanding.

The ability to master a word is an integral part of the general culture of a person, his education. For an intelligent person, noted A.P. Chekhov, “speaking badly should be considered as indecent as not being able to read and write ... All the best statesmen in the era of prosperity of states, the best philosophers, poets, reformers were at the same time the best orators. the path to any career is strewn. "

Since ancient times, people have sought to understand what is the secret of the impact of a living word, is it an innate gift or the result of long, painstaking training and self-education? The answer to these and other questions is given by RHETORICA.

For most of our compatriots, the word rhetoric sounds mysterious, for others it means nothing, for still others it means pompous, outwardly beautiful, and even "empty speech." This word is often accompanied by such epithets as "manipulating" or "empty".

The most common definition is as follows: rhetoric is theory, skill and the art of eloquence. By eloquence, the ancients understood the art of the orator, and by rhetoric - the rules that serve to educate orators.

You can kill with a word

You can save with a word

In a word, you can shelves

In modern manuals and books on rhetoric, this science is often called "the science of persuasion." Aristotle would have remained dissatisfied with this formulation, would have considered it an obvious mistake. You say: what an insignificant difference! Is it really that important how to say "science to persuade" or "science to find ways to persuade." You need to immediately get used not only to the accuracy of the word, reflecting all the nuances, shades of thought, but also to the accuracy, which conveys a clear semantic structure of speech.

In antiquity, rhetoric was called "the queen of all arts."

Nowadays, rhetoric is a theory of persuasive communication.

With free will and reason, we ourselves are responsible for our actions. The science of rhetoric provides us with invaluable help in this: it allows us to evaluate the argumentation of any speech and make an independent decision.

Since we live in a society, we need to take into account the opinions of other people, to consult with them. Convincing another means justifying your ideas in such a way that those who participate in the discussion agree with them and join them, become your allies.

Learning convincingly, speaking, if necessary, then arguing, convincingly defending your point of view is possible and necessary.

2. The role of language in the formation of a person's personality

The words burn like heat

Or freeze like stones

Depends on

What have you endowed them with

What to them in their hour

Touched my hands

And how much did you give them

Spiritual warmth.

N. Rylenkov

Today everything that is connected with the concept is extremely relevant. "culture" is a very ambiguous and capacious concept.

Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by human society and characterizing a certain level of development of society.

Today humanization and democratization are declared as the basic principles of the education system. Education itself is viewed as a means of safe and comfortable existence of an individual in the modern world, as a way of self-development of an individual. Under these conditions, a change of priorities in education takes place, it becomes possible to strengthen its cultural-forming role, a new ideal of a person educated in the form of a "person of culture", "a person of a refined image" with mental, ethical, aesthetic, social and spiritual culture appears.

The means and condition for achieving this ideal, the very goal of education, is the communicative culture of the individual, which includes emotional and speech, informational and logical culture as components.

The 1984 High School Reform Papers stated:

"Fluency in Russian should become the norm for young people who graduate from secondary educational institutions."

These attitudes have been preserved in the latest documents on the restructuring of public education.

Why is the prestige of education so irresistibly declining? Why are the spiritual needs and demands of our yesterday's and today's students so frighteningly flawed? What will help stop the catastrophically fading interest in knowledge and books? How to stop the devaluation of the national heritage - the native language, to revive the traditions of respectful attitude to the word, purity, richness of speech? All of the above issues are related to the problem of the spiritual state of society, with the speech culture of its members, the culture of their communication. It so happened that living in words and words, and not reality, accustomed to semantic unambiguity, people lost the ability to understand the different meanings of words, to see the degree of their correspondence to reality. It is curious that the ability to correlate a word with reality, academician I.P. Pavlov considered it as the most important property of the mind.

Observing what Russia was going through, in 1918 he said in his public lecture: "Russian thought ... does not go behind the scenes of the word, does not like to look at the real reality. We are collecting words, not studying life." ,

The destroyed tradition of an evaluative attitude to speech, emerging (on the favorable soil of low culture) fetishization of the word led to the inability to foresee the consequences of the introduction of paramilitary vocabulary (to arm, fight, form, forge) into enlightenment problems.

Entering the pedagogical consciousness, this vocabulary predetermined the subordination of educational and upbringing activities to the barracks laws, conditioned command-directive forms of interaction, rigidly regulated models of relations.

All this dehumanized the education system, leaving no room for the implementation of its most important function - education, aimed at developing and improving the culture of the individual and society as a whole.

According to the results of the survey of students of different age groups, there is reason to believe that the developmental potential of the school in terms of the formation of a culture of speech and a culture of communication is being implemented poorly, inconsistently and unpredictably. The culture of speech and the culture of communication, being the conditions and means for the development of students, the formation of their individual culture, should be considered as the goal, the result of the humanization and humanization of the education system.

At present, the closest dependence between the economy, education, attitude to work and human culture is beginning to be recognized. The most pressing problem today - the moral image, the cultural personality, since in solving economic, general social and cultural issues, the efforts of not only the team, but also each person are important.

The increased interest in moral issues in recent years is also caused by the awareness of a rather low culture in the field of communication.

Communication is a complex process involving the pursuit of truth.

Communication is a complex process that requires the ability to hear and listen to another person.

Communication is a complex process that involves respect for the personality of the interlocutor with whom the dialogue is being conducted.

Truly human communication is based on respect for the dignity of another person, observance of the norms of morality developed by mankind.

In broad terms, the concept of a culture of behavior includes all aspects of a person's internal and external culture: etiquette, culture of everyday life, organization of personal time, hygiene, aesthetic tastes in the choice of consumer goods, and work culture.

Particular attention should be paid to the culture of speech: the ability to speak and listen, to conduct a conversation is an important condition for mutual understanding, verification of the truth or falsity of one's opinions and ideas.

Speech is the most meaningful, capacious and expressive means of communication.

A high speech culture presupposes a high culture of thinking, for immature thoughts cannot be expressed in a clear accessible form.

The culture of speech is an integral part of the general culture of a person, the ability to accurately and expressively convey one's thoughts.

Language reflects the state of morality in society. Vernacular and jargon highlight laziness, although, at first glance, they help communication, simplifying this process. Incorrect speech, peppered with slang expressions, indicates a person's poor upbringing.

In this regard, the ideas of K. Paustovsky that in relation to each person's attitude to their language can be absolutely accurately judged not only about his cultural level, but also about his civil value seem to be relevant. True love for your country is unthinkable without love for your language. A person indifferent to native language, - Savage. It is harmful in its very essence, because its indifference to language is explained by the uttermost indifference to the past, present and future of its people.

Language is not only a sensitive indicator of the intellectual, moral development of a person, his general culture, but also the best educator.

A clear expression of one's thoughts, an accurate choice of words, a richness of speech form a person's thinking and his professional skills in all areas of human activity.

Academician D.S. Likhachev rightly notes that "slovenliness in clothes is disrespect for the people around you and for yourself. It's not about being dressed smartly. There is, perhaps, an exaggerated idea of ​​one's own elegance in smart clothes, and for the most part smart stands on the verge of funny. yourself. "

Our language is an essential part of our overall behavior and life. And by the way a person speaks, we can immediately and easily judge who we are dealing with: we can determine the degree of a person's intelligence, the degree of his psychological balance, the degree of his possible complexes.

Our speech is the most important part not only of our behavior, but also of our soul, mind, our ability not to succumb to the influences of the environment.

Everything, no matter what we talk about, everything and always depends on the state of morality. The tongue feels it. In this saddle.

N.M. Karamzin said: "... Language and literature are the essence ... the main methods of public education; the wealth of language is the wealth of thoughts, ... it serves as the first school for a young soul, imperceptibly, profound sciences ... "

3. The role of rhetoric in public life

The development of democracy, the dissemination of the ideas of individual freedom and the equality of people before the law determined the need of society for a rhetoric that would show how to convince an equal.

History shows that in periods of fundamental social changes, rhetoric has always been in demand by life - one can recall the role and place of rhetoric in the life of Ancient Greece, Ancient rome, in the era of the Great French revolution, the period of the Civil War in the United States, the role of revolutionary rhetoric after the overthrow of the autocracy and during October revolution and civil war in Russia. It is no accident that in ancient democracies public speech played such a prominent role and came to naught in the Middle Ages, when theological and church rhetoric prevailed.

Currently, human rights are gradually becoming the most important aspect of social life in developed countries. In these conditions, people began to need to be persuaded, moreover, people who are not equal to each other in terms of education and culture, but who require equal treatment. In democracies, it has become necessary to convince people in preparation for elections. A person is individually unique, not like others, and this complicates communication, necessitates learning to communicate. country.

In Russia, as in any developed democratic country, a public democratic discussion of various social problems is essential condition the very existence of a democratic state, the basis of its functioning, a guarantee of public approval of important decisions by the population It cannot be argued that public discussions in modern Russia are completely absent. But on vital issues, when it is necessary to make an important decision at the state or local level, such discussions are conducted mainly by the administrative or legislative elite, and more often behind the scenes.

Such discussions are practiced in elected political bodies: in the State Duma, in local self-government bodies. Television talk shows emerge. These programs reflect the need of society for public discussion of problems, interest in such discussions. At the same time, it should be noted that minor problems are often discussed, many of the programs quickly disappear, which shows the instability of public interest in such programs.

Discussions in newspapers arouse the interest of readers, but have limited resonance, since people often do not believe in the effectiveness of the newspaper word, they believe that discussions and compromising materials are made to order and do not reflect the truth. It must be recognized that in modern Russian society the tradition and technique of a comprehensive democratic public discussion of problems of public interest in labor collectives, discussion clubs are almost completely absent, educational institutions and in general at the level of ordinary citizens.

Russian political practice lacks the experience of public discussions, generally accepted rules for holding such events, uniform requirements for the timetable for speeches and for answering questions, and the distribution of the roles of discussion participants. There is no tradition of equal observance of the rules by all participants in such discussions, regardless of their official position, there is no experience of respectfully asking questions and a respectful answer to the questions asked on the merits, there is no tradition of strict adherence to ethical and rhetorical standards of discussion.

At the same time, public discussion of problems of public interest is of great importance for the formation of mechanisms of democratic procedures, for everyday democratic practice. Without the skills and habit of public discussion of socially significant problems of both national and local significance by ordinary citizens of Russia, the formation and development of a democratic state is impossible.

Social progress in the XX century. significantly expanded the possibilities of rhetoric. Millions of people in Russia were drawn into the processes of political transformations: three revolutions, two world wars, the "cold war", the spread of democracy in the world, the collapse of the USSR affected the country's population. Radio and television have contributed to the influence of the word on the mindset of a huge audience.

The role and possibilities of public speaking have grown significantly. Late XX - early XXI century marked by the democratization of public life in Russia and the countries of the former socialist camp. Former Soviet republics became independent states. Democratic elections for presidents, parliamentarians, and self-government bodies have involved millions of people in political life. Oratory has become in demand again.

It is necessary in every possible way to encourage the development of oral public discussion of socially significant problems in Russian society, as well as to teach rhetorical skills, starting from school. Rhetorical education of Russian citizens is a very important task today.

4. The role of rhetoric in professional activity

The society is divided by differences of confessional rites. Society includes various professions and various forms of organization professional activity, different areas of law and management styles, physical culture requires targeting ages and the nature of physiology individuals. Abstract thinking determined by the difference between sciences and areas of technology. The difference in talents determines the difference in people in their professional activities.

In this process, speech activity plays a leading role. The fact is that any form of upbringing requires verbal actions in order for it, one way or another, to be established.

So, for teaching the arts, for introducing works of art into society (ordering, showing, criticizing, interpreting a work by an artist, educating an artist), society uses speech actions. With the help of speech actions, the selection of the best (classical) works is organized, their systematization, classification, codification and storage, and presentation of art to consumers.

Any forecasting system requires an interpretation of the present and forecasted situation. Management only resorts to formalisms in order to present linguistic information in a convenient form. At the center of the rite are linguistic actions. The rules of the game are explained in language. Hence the problem of the diversity and unity of society in vivid forms is concentratedly expressed in linguistic actions and, in fact, is governed by linguistic actions.

When we talk about professional competence specialist, we mean first of all his knowledge of his specialty, but at the same time we assume that professional knowledge is supported by a general humanitarian culture a person, his ability to understand the world around him, his ability to communicate. As we have already said, the ability to communicate for a number of professions, and economic in the first place, is an integral part of professional competence, a prerequisite for true professionalism. Professional speech competence should be trained, given the necessary knowledge, and formed basic skills. So what should be taught and learned? What does the term “professional communicative competence”?

When we talk about the professional competence of a specialist, we mean first of all his knowledge of his specialty, but at the same time we assume that professional knowledge is supported by the general humanitarian culture of a person, his ability to understand the world around him, and his ability to communicate. As we have already said, the ability to communicate for a number of professions, and economic in the first place, is an integral part of professional competence, a prerequisite for true professionalism.

In fact, the dissertation research of T.V. Mazur “Professionally oriented rhetorical training of law students in the university” [Mazur: 2001]. She writes: “At present, the problem of the speech competence of a lawyer is more acute than in previous years ... there is a clear need to organize high-quality, professionally significant speech training of future specialists at the university ...” [Mazur 2001: 3-4]. To form the speech competence of lawyers, she offers a whole block of disciplines, each of which provides a certain side of preparation (for example, “introduction to legal rhetoric,” “legal oratorio," etc.). At the same time, the system of skills that provide professional speech training includes such as defining the strategy and tactics of verbal behavior in professional activity, achieving the best possible fulfillment of communication goals, effectively deliver oral monologic speeches and speak with them in typical speech situations of professional activity, effectively build verbal behavior in dialogical communication [ibid: 16, 17] , that is, we are talking about free possession of the repertoire of professional speech genres

O. Ya. Goikhman in the monograph "Scientific and practical problems of teaching speech communication of non-philological students ...", notes that "to achieve communicative competence in the social sphere, certain groups of skills are needed, including the ability to communicate verbally and non-verbally, negotiate, act together" [ Goikhman 2000: 21-22]. The constituent parts teaching professional communicative competence, according to the scientist, should be a culture of speech and elementary literacy of students, which leaves much to be desired for modern school graduates. One cannot but agree with these provisions.

At the same time, one should agree with N.K. Garbovsky and supplement the definition of professional speech as a system of speech genres that are regularly used in the process of professional-role interaction of communicants. Professional speech, in our opinion and in the opinion of such researchers of professional speech communication as T.A. Milekhina, N.I. Shevchenko, can speak in different versions depending on the composition of the communicants (specialist / non-specialist) and the communication situation (official / unofficial), and depending on this, oral professional speech will be closer or further from the “ideal” professional speech, which we can observe only with communication of specialists in formal setting... From whom you have to communicate, in what conditions communication takes place, it will largely depend on which version of the “professional language” a professional economist should turn to in order to be correctly understood and ultimately complete the intended communicative task and achieve success.

Rhetoric and culture of speech permeates all spheres of society. Language is a form of thinking and a means of communication. Rhetoric is necessary for the formation of a person's cultural level, his ability to establish relationships with society. A professional career is highly dependent on the culture of communication and the use of a professional language. The ability to build relationships with colleagues is absolutely essential for a productive professional activity.

It is necessary in every possible way to promote the idea of ​​oral public debating of socially significant issues, as well as to promote rhetorical norms and teach debating, starting from school. It seems that this is the most important social task of today, the solution of which will allow to form a truly democratic climate in society, will lead to the formation of citizens' civic responsibility for their country, for their own decisions in elections or referendums, will contribute to the formation of attention and interest in other people's opinions, the formation of political and interpersonal tolerance, which is so necessary for our society.

1. N. Voichenko. “Code of Honor for an Orator or On the Art of Public Speaking. " // Journalist. - No. 12. - 2008 - 38 p.

2. O. Ya. Goikhman "Scientific and practical problems of teaching speech communication among students of non-philology ...". - 2000 g.

3. Tatiana Zharinova. “Does Rhetoric Need a Modern Society? "//" Samizdat "magazine. - 2005 g.

4. N.E. Kamenskaya Problems of rhetoric in modern Russia. // Yazak as a means of communication: theory, practice, teaching methods. - 2008 - p. 195

5. T.V. Mazur, “Professionally oriented rhetorical training of law students in the university”. - 2001

6. I.P. Pavlov, "On the Russian mind" // "Literary newspaper". 1981, N30

7. The role of language in the formation of a person's personality. - 2009

Tatyana Zharinova Does Modern Society Need Rhetoric? // Samizdat magazine. - 2005 g.

N. Voichenko. Code of Honor for a Speaker or On the Art of Public Speaking. // Journalist. - No. 12. - 2008 - 38 p.

You are successful in business - reveals the discrepancy between such a judgment and the real state of affairs. Another thing is also true: not all members of a sentence are really needed in the analysis of the logical basis of the text. And then, in order to expose it, it is necessary to distract from the insignificant details. The subject of logical analysis is also supraphrasal level units - text fragments that are highlighted in ...

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Who shoots a lot is not a shooter yet, who talks a lot is not an orator yet

Confucius

With the help of speech, a person expresses thoughts, feelings and desires, referring to the feelings and minds of his listeners. Contemporary rhetoric it is not just mastering the skills of correct speech, but also the ability to achieve a certain result by using speech means.

Thus, the rhetorical text must meet one important goal: to express thoughts and use facts in such a way as to bring the listeners to the proper conclusion, for which the speech was actually delivered.

The manager, like any speaker, must own the material of the speech. This is the guarantee of oratory. It is known that communication between people can be fruitful and effective only when words reach the heart of a person and get inside him.

Looking at the main stages of the formation of rhetoric, we can say with conviction that this statement applies one hundred percent to public speech. It will be successful when it has the right effect in the mind and heart of the listener. But this requires hard work, speech must be practiced.

Having studied the basic laws of rhetoric, one can understand what shortcomings this or that speech is "gifted" with. These include:

• monotone;
• dryness;
• inconclusiveness;
• boring narration.

Rhetoric as the art of eloquence is designed to serve people

This means that the methods of rhetorical influence should be legal and persuade listeners, not coerce. Some people have a negative attitude towards rhetoric precisely because they consider it to be a servant of evil.After all, speech is a weapon and can be abused. But can the knowledge that it can be abused be a reason for neglecting speech? Of course not.

Harsh rhetoric is dangerous and unacceptable. A manager must adhere to rigor or strict adherence to moral principles, each time rethinking how decent his views and attitude are. Rhetoric and ethics go hand in hand.

The manager is obliged to monitor his performance, in which there are no lies and half-truths. The speech should not mislead the audience, the manager has no right to exaggerate information or give it inaccurately. The purpose of rhetoric: everything that is said must be supported by convincing evidence.

The manager needs to understand for himself why rhetoric is needed, and, taking on the role of a speaker, enter the role of a mediator between the listener and the subject of speech. In relation to both parties, there should be complete equality and respect, one of them should not be neglected.

Therefore, it is important to approach the subject of conversation, conversation, performance wisely. Rhetoric in the modern world, as well as in the ancient world, and at all times necessarily borders on decency, it has no right to neglect the framework of morality and ethics. No deliberate misinformation or misleading of the listener.

The stages in the development of rhetoric brought the science of eloquence to a certain division of rhetorical speeches. Depending on the purpose and purpose, they are divided into:

• scientific reports, messages, stories about a business trip, etc.
• political speech;
• festive, thanksgiving speech;
• welcome address.

So the speaker manager can talk about any personal experiences, perhaps the purpose of the speech is to emphasize something, to strengthen feelings, with the help of speech you can explain the state of affairs, indicate any advantages in their understanding, the purpose of the speech can be the expression of an opinion, there is widespread debate and discussion in this regard. Here, the non-verbal activity of the speaker can also be of great use.

The gift of eloquence and talent for speech of genius is enhanced by the manager's ability as an orator to use memory during a speech. Therefore, the rhetoric workshop includes compulsory training and daily exercises to develop memory.

Actually, such training consists in the usual memorization of a poem or newspaper article every day. But rhetoric as a science involves not just rote cramming, but the development and use of directed and functioning memory. It is not at all necessary to memorize large passages of texts or entire books.

The developed directed memory acts, allowing the manager to know where, in what place to find the necessary information, in which literature, which source must be raised in order to find the necessary data, facts, information. The information itself can be easily recorded so as not to overload the memory with them.

Functioning memory is an excellent aid in discussions and negotiations. Memorizing certain events, evaluating them, interconnecting details very often put the manager in a winning position in front of the audience, listeners and opponents.

Of course, it is impossible to remember everything, since a person's memory still has a certain volume, which in turn is also limited. But this is the rhetoric that these are not ordinary trainings with a simple cramming of material.

With rote memorization, as a rule, thinking through is not involved. While it is precisely thoughtful, thoughtful mastering when memorizing the material that allows the latter to firmly settle in memory. Thus, three elements contribute to strengthening and training the speaker's memory:

• concentration.
• associations.
• repetition.

Concentration increases the ability to perceive material. It depends on several components. One of them is the manifestation of interest in the subject of memorization. The subject that is most interesting will be memorized easier and faster, it will be easier to concentrate on it and the level of concentration will be higher in this case.

The second factor is the ability to be distracted, disconnected from the outside world. The more a manager possesses such an ability, the higher his concentration will be, and therefore the ability to memorize the necessary things will increase.

The development of speech is not possible without the development of memory

As a manager, as a person who seeks to own the audience and the attention of the listeners, it is important to know how to develop the rhetoric of speech. And for this, short, or operational, memory should be developed, that is, the manager should be able to store information in memory for a short period of time.

Such memory is necessary in order to quickly, when reading, grasp and memorize important keywords and then develop formulations on their basis throughout subsequent speech. Memory should be developed taking into account personal characteristics. The manager may have a penchant for good motor memory. Then, for memorization, it is better for him to use such a tool as writing.

If the acoustic memory is more developed, then when memorizing the information will be better perceived by ear. When a manager has excellent visual memory, for better memorization, he should use the designation of keywords in the text, for example, paint them in different colors or underline.

It is very good in this case to use diagrams and pictures in order to strengthen memory. The task of the manager is to learn not more, but better, that is, so that even the smallest material is imprinted in the memory thoroughly.

When training memory, the manager needs to use the associative mechanism of the human body. It does this by creating "memory bridges" or associative rows. That is, keywords are memorized associatively, and sentences with the help of figurative connections.

For example, the manager associates each keyword with an association. It is known that the material being memorized is attached to something deeply anchored in memory. So, for example, facts are connected with any personal feelings and thus contribute to the development of sensations, and sensations remain in memory.

Repetition is a repeated return to what you read or heard. It creates a good environment for memorization. In essence, it is a means that can provide memorization. To do this, you should:

• to read aloud - in this case, vision is combined with hearing and, therefore, the material is assimilated faster and easier. It is not necessary to repeat large passages; you can reread some of the main points highlighted in the text;
• breaks - it is better to memorize for a short period of time than to load memory over a long time period (for example, an hour a day, rather than two hours in one day). It is known that during breaks, the subconscious memory continues to process and fix material in memory. And the earlier you start repetition, the faster the consolidation will occur. It is important to load memory at the right time, when it is fresh and free, and not when it is tired;
• the use of combined repetition - memorization occurs faster when the subject areas have contact connections.

To remember, the manager just needs to remember the beginning, the end of the text and its base from keywords, so that on this framework, using causal links reproduce everything else.

The art of rhetoric is correctly developed breathing when pronouncing speech.

Breathing is an important part of human life. In the end, with the help of the air that comes in when you inhale, sounds, speeches are pronounced, songs are sung. Breathing occurs due to the movement of the respiratory muscles.

Correct breathing is ensured when inhalation is taken through the nose. Otherwise, when inhaling through the mouth, the larynx dries up, the voice sits down. Therefore, the main tasks of rhetoric include mastering the technique of breathing. The manager, as a speaker, needs to monitor the breathing and constantly exercise to use diaphragmatic abdominal and lateral breathing.

Exercises

Thus, breathing will be deep, in which the entire volume of the lungs is involved. When using only upper breathing, cramping can occur, especially if the shoulders are lifted.Breathing is considered correct when the abdominal wall is rounded and the sides are stretched.

To train deep breathing, breathe fresh air more often, taking about 20 deep breaths. A good exercise is to inhale and hold a little, leaving the air free for a few seconds.

The next exercise is to pronounce the sounds "s", "w", "f", slowly or in jerks, gaining air. Every sound and word is pronounced slowly and very long.Another training is to maintain a normal speech tempo for as long as possible in one breath.

The science of rhetoric, the culture of speech implies the use of the basic rule when pronouncing speech: you should breathe in air only in the place where, according to the meaning, you can pause. Correct breathing guarantees rich and beautiful speech, so the manager should constantly monitor the breathing. You can hone your breathing technique with the help of breathing exercises, for example, using materials from popular universities.

Rhetoric translated from the Greek word "rhetorike" literally means "oratory." Initially, she meant a direct meaning - the ability to speak beautifully and express thoughts in public. Later, the concept of rhetoric was repeatedly modified depending on the period of development of the culture of mankind.

Modern oratory has retained the features that defined it in antiquity. These roots must be sought in antiquity, where rhetorical science originated. The art of eloquence originated in Greece in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e., on the site of modern Sicily. This period fell on the heyday of Athenian democracy. The People's Assembly and the Court, the Council of Five Hundred began to play an important role in the life of the state: courts are held, political issues are publicly resolved. A free citizen needs eloquence to conduct business, build a career, and defend rights.

Rhetoric in ancient Greece as a science arose around 460 BC. e., its formation at this time is associated with the sophists:

• Corax (467 BC) - political orator, became the first author of a treatise on rhetoric and the founder of a school that taught the art of eloquence.
• Tisias (480 BC) - the founder of ancient rhetoric, wrote and published a work on the art of persuasion, was the first to introduce the structure of oratorical speech: what to say at the beginning and in the middle, how to end the speech.
• Protagoras (481-411 BC) - gained fame as a result of his teaching work, traveled around the world, introduced a dialogue form of communication, inviting interlocutors to defend and defend their own beliefs.
• Lysias (443 BC) - the ancient Greek orator, who laid the foundations of judicial eloquence, created a kind of standard of style, which was followed by the next generations of rhetoricians.
• Gorgias (483 BC) - the founder of sophistry, a teacher of eloquence in Athens, developed techniques for decorating speech, which were called "Gorgian figures".

The ideology of the sophists had a number of features:

• The main thing is audience manipulation.
• The basis of sophistic rhetoric is an argument, a verbal contest in which one wins and the other loses.
• Sophists did not look for truth in the dispute, they need victory, therefore it is not the content of the speech that is important, but its “external form”.

Not all the contemporaries of the sophists shared this teaching, considering the techniques of the latter to be intellectual fraud. However, the sophists have helped rhetoric to become one of the compulsory sciences for the education of citizens.

Socrates and Plato - discoverers of new ways of oratory

Socrates (born about 470 BC) is known for opposing the sophistic ideals of rhetoric. He believed that the sophists, with their sophistication in evidence, confuse the public. According to the philosopher, the main point of true eloquence should be finding the truth, and not the skill of the speaker, who is able to assure the listeners of anything. This idea was later expounded by Plato (a disciple of Socrates), which can be read in the work "Phaedrus".

Socrates did a lot to develop the dialogue form of conversation, his teaching was all the time focused on correct construction speech:

• introduction;
• presentation of the material;
• proof of what was said;
• conclusions on the topic (plausible).

Socrates wondered philosophical problems about the meaning of human existence. He believed: the dialogue is conducted not for fun and idle affairs, but in order to find the truth. Socrates' rhetoric can be viewed from a moral standpoint.

Plato (427 BC) emphasized the emotional conviction of the speaker, believing that eloquence should touch the most secret strings of the listener's soul. He said that each speaker should have his own path to finding the truth, no need to rely on other people's thoughts and experience.

Aristotle and his significance in the formation of rhetoric as a science

Ancient rhetoric cannot be imagined without the name of Aristotle (384–322 BC), who developed and generalized everything that the orators of Greece were able to achieve. He is the author of the treatise "Rhetoric", which included 3 books:

• 1 - tells what place rhetoric occupies in the system of ancient sciences, what kinds of speeches it is presented;
• 2 - describes ways to convince listeners;
• 3 - studies the problems of style and structure of speech.

The philosopher clearly distinguished fiction from rhetoric, the first he dedicated the treatise "Poetics". This teaching examines the theory of drama. In the first part, the philosopher gives a characterization of the term "poetics". Here you can read how he discusses the essence of art, believing that it helps people understand life. While Plato and Socrates did not give the function of cognition to rhetoric. Poetics sums up all the existing literary theories. The work is written in simple and specific language. Treatise "Poetics" expressed the theory of poetry of Aristotle, and "Rhetoric" formulated the theory of fiction. The works "Poetics" and "Rhetoric" influenced the development of philosophy.

Aristotle was able to complete the transformation of oratory into science. His teaching identifies a chain that was later developed in the works of other researchers:

• 1 - the sender of the speech;
• 2 - speech;
• 3 - the recipient of the speech.

Aristotle believed that the persuasiveness of a rhetorician directly depends on his morality. But the quality of speech and the mood of the audience also matter. In his writings, the philosopher analyzes the types of listeners, saying that the speaker should rely on their individual characteristics. For example, when creating a future speech, consider the age of the potential audience. Aristotle opposed the manipulation of people, the goal of the orator, on the contrary, should be to encourage the listeners to think.

The ultimate goal of the conversation is the acquired truth, Aristotle believed. But in no case do you achieve victory in different ways, it is much better to combine efforts to reach agreement. Aristotle became the figure whose activity influenced the further formation of the art of orators. It is ancient rhetoric that develops the basic principles of science.

Rhetoric of Ancient Rome

The time of Hellenism was the next stage in the development of rhetoric. Greece lost its independence, and Rome took the dominant position. However, the Romans quickly adopted the cultural achievements of the Greeks.

The eloquence of the Romans flourished in the 1st century AD. e., this is the time when the role of the courts and the People's Assembly grew. The main person in the rhetoric of this era is Mark Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC). He was a skilled orator who considered eloquence the main weapon in the hands of the state. This is the only way to influence the masses of people. The teachings of Cicero are stated in the books he wrote:

• "About the speaker";
• "Brutus" or "About the famous orators";
• "Speaker";
• "On the best kind of orators."

Mark Tullius believed: a politician or public figure must be a skillful orator. And to become one, one should read and study a lot, have the makings of an actor and have a good memory. The rhetorician continued to develop the Greek classical ideal of how to structure speech:

• First and foremost, the speaker must find something to say.
• The second is to arrange the material in a strict order.
• Put into verbal form.
• Be sure to remember the material.
• To declaim the speech.

As the power of Rome grew, so did the essence of rhetoric. It was perceived not as the ability of good persuasion, but as a science to express thoughts beautifully. This approach was close to another Roman rhetorician - Mark Fabius Quintilian (36–100 AD). He created the first public school rhetoric and wrote a number of treatises on this science. His work became the final period of Roman rhetorical art.

The rhetoric of the ancient world played an important role in the life of Roman society. She was a means of public communication, she was taught in schools to children as a compulsory discipline. But the subsequent crisis of the Roman empire was reflected in eloquence - it became formal and meaningless.

Development of rhetoric in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

At the end of the 5th century, Rome fell, a feudal system was established, and the rhetoric began to change. Church eloquence comes to the fore. It is instructive in character. Rhetorical science in the Middle Ages has a number of characteristics:

• the need for the art of an orator is declining;
• not everyone needs rhetoric, clergy and scientists need it;
• the loss of many traditions of ancient rhetoric, although some developments are used (in particular, Latin);
• serves as decoration for politicians 'speeches and preachers' speeches.

In the Middle Ages, rhetoric acquires the ability to influence the mental consciousness of a person. If the preacher possessed such a quality, his rhetorical skill was at its best. In the field of preaching eloquence, theologians known to the whole world have grown up: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, Thomas Aquinas.

In the XI-XII centuries, medieval universities appeared, and the university art of eloquence was formed. But it still depends heavily on the church.

A new rise in interest in rhetoric is noted during the Renaissance, at which time significant cultural changes are taking place. An interest arose in antiquity, Christianity ceases to be the leading ideology. With the development of the economy, trade eloquence is reviving, parliamentary and judicial oratory is gaining popularity.

The rhetoric of the Renaissance is characterized by a departure from Latin of old textbooks, more and more ideas are heard to look for new opportunities in their native national language. The art of orators comes close to fiction. This is the period of the appearance of the first books on rhetoric, the ability to read in national languages... Among them:

• The Garden of Eloquence - Henry Peach.
• "The Art of Poetry" - Nicolas Boileau.
• The Art of English Poetry - George Puttenham.

The Renaissance era gave impetus to the emergence of new branches of eloquence, such as the rhetoric of conversation in a secular society or the rhetoric of a portrait. The skillful orator, writer and philosopher of antiquity Cicero becomes an example to follow. The best minds of this time believe that language learning is an indispensable condition for the equilateral development and growth of a personality.

History of rhetoric in Russian culture

The Russian history of rhetoric has deep roots. In ancient times in Russia the term "rhetoric" was absent, but there was the concept of "eloquence". It poured out in different forms:

• Political eloquence - it was necessary to show it at popular meetings, veche or gatherings of elders.
• Military eloquence was used to inspire troops before battles.
• Diplomatic - treaties between warring parties.
• At feasts and feasts, a solemn trend in the art of orators was born.

After the baptism of Russia, didactic rhetoric arose, which resulted in teaching and instruction, more often for young people. These include "The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh", "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum", "The Life of Sergei of Radonezh." The writer and preacher Kirill Turovsky left a noticeable mark in the history of Old Russian rhetoric. His legacy is exemplary in the art of orators, directed to the congregation in the form of instruction and sermons.

Despite the developed culture of eloquence, until the XII century in Russia did not exist educational literature in rhetoric. Such a work appeared only in 1620 and included 2 books: "On the invention of deeds" and "On the decoration of the word." The work presents the doctrine of science as a whole, the term "rhetorician" and the range of his "duties" are considered.

M. Lomonosov made an incommensurable contribution to the formation and development of Russian rhetoric. The scientist wrote two textbooks, where he described the history of rhetoric and analyzed the ancient oratory. Lomonosov's rhetoric sets out the requirements and rules that the speaker should be guided by. The work was highly appreciated by contemporaries in the 18th century, they began to read it a lot, later it became the basis for writing new textbooks.

Rhetoric in Russia was further formed thanks to outstanding scientists and teachers, public figures, including:

• Speransky M.M. (1772-1839) - wrote a course in literature (1792), the work sets out the norms and rules of speech for the orator.
• Nikolsky A.S. (1755-1834) - in his works "Logic and Rhetoric" (1790) and "Foundations of Russian Literature" (1792) he considers prosaic, oratory and poetic speech, each gives a characteristic.
• Rizhsky I.S. (1755-1811) - created an essay of 4 parts "Rhetoric", these works were used to teach many generations in universities.

The first half of the 19th century was the flourishing of Russian rhetoric. A lot of scientific works are being created, especially a great contribution was made by the works of famous scientists A.F. Merzlyakova, N.F. Koshansky, A.I. Galich, K.P. Zelensky.

The second half of the 19th century was the period of the emergence of the new discipline "Theory of Literature", which took on some concepts and sections of rhetoric. But rhetoric itself as an independent subject was gradually lost by the beginning of the 20th century.

The development of Russian rhetoric in the XX century

In the XX century, the theory of literature is replaced by stylistics - the science of the types and styles of language. The best works in this area of ​​philology, the works of S.P. Obnorskoy, L.P. Yakubinsky, P.A. Larina, V.V. Vinogradov.

The works of V.V. Vinogradov, made an incommensurable contribution to the development of Russian philological science. The scientist-rhetorician was engaged in in-depth study of the branches of the science of language. Many disciplines owe their appearance to the works of Vinogradov. Thanks to him, phraseology was born, the history of Russian literary language, the science of language works of art.

Some of Vinogradov's significant books are:

• "Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the XIII-XIX centuries";
• "Russian language".

Vinogradov is called the classic of linguistics, he researched and analyzed hundreds of lexical and phraseological units. The scientist studied the history of words and expressions, wrote articles and essays based on the research results. In honor of Academician Vinogradov, the largest scientific school modern Russian studies, which included outstanding Russian and foreign philologists.

The scientist, together with other philologists, worked on the creation of " Explanatory dictionary Russian language "edited by D.N. Ushakov. In the course of this work, Vinogradov's article was published, where he summarized his previous experience in creating dictionaries of this type. For this, the scientist had to read and study a lot of literature, starting with the ancient Russian alphabet books, ending with the dictionaries of his contemporaries.

In Vinogradov's work "On artistic prose" one can read about the fate and history of Russian rhetoric. He noted that oratorical speech should become "an urgent topic of Russian philological science." But the academician was not heard. An attempt to revive rhetorical art after revolutionary events XX century failed. But steps were taken in this direction. So, in 1918 in the city of Petrograd, the Institute of the Living Word was created, where they developed theories of eloquence, wrote articles on topics, and taught lecturers. But in the early 30s of the XX century, the institute became part of the Institute of Linguistics and ceased to exist.

The totalitarian regime of the 20th century in Russia did not need the skill of orators, the very word "rhetoric" began to be identified with empty and false speech. Rhetorical traditions were interrupted for many years. In the 50-60s. scientists were interested in the problems of speech culture.

Interest in public speaking began to manifest itself in the 70s. XX century, as the demands of lecture propaganda grew. In the early 90s. in connection with the democratization of society and the emergence of freedom of speech, rhetoric as a science has revived again. Today it is studied at universities, it is included in the programs of humanitarian classes in schools and gymnasiums.

Knowledge of the history and traditions of public speaking is necessary for a modern person to solve communication problems and successful self-realization. Today rhetoric has received a second wind, its development is being carried out in close connection with linguistics, logic, philosophy, sociology, psychology and a number of other sciences. This direction has received the name "neorhetoric".

Introduction

rhetoric controversy eloquence speech

Why did I choose this topic? The question is, of course, rhetorical ... It is close to me, because I live in the modern world and the concept of modernity is closer to me. But this in no way gives me the right to ignore the history of the issue, having familiarized myself with which I tried to choose a range of topics most understandable to me and wanted to see how rhetoric “lives” in our time.

This work can be compared to building a brick house. Each subtopic is like its separate brick, which are held together by the cement of already acquired knowledge and skills. Based on the literature I read, I made some conclusions, which I tried to combine into one monolithic text. I have no divisions, there is one big thought that is not framed by anything.

Contemporary rhetoric of Russia

“What a person is, such is his speech,” said Socrates, “and when a young man was introduced to him so that he would appreciate him and express a judgment about him, the philosopher first of all entered into a conversation with him. Literary teachers since the time of Socrates have been well aware of this truth. But, unfortunately, one gets the impression that it has been forgotten in recent decades. How many of us, who graduated not only from school, but also from the institute, are able to speak freely and freely in public or conduct a conversation?

If in ancient times philosophers were rhetoricians who announced their works, captured the attention of listeners and students, put their judgments about the world into the minds of people, now every person who has to communicate should have this skill.

Rhetoric is essential for all people who, by virtue of their profession, have to speak, and not only. In our time, the art of rhetoric is possessed by people with public space: journalists, politicians. But on the other hand, each of us uses his own resource - speech.

Now in many schools there is such a subject as rhetoric, but do children need it? Indeed, in school age when you try to memorize impossible formulas and memorize several chapters of "Eugene Onegin" - this is only a struggle for evaluation, nothing more. But in the life of each of us there comes a moment when you think about: "Do I speak correctly, do others listen to me, can I convince my opponent of the correctness of my thoughts." From this comes the conclusion - everything has its time.

Let's see how rhetoric is developing in our time as a science, as a practical science. Some understand rhetoric only as eloquence, but this is not so. Not only public performance associated with this science and its practical part.

Take business, for example, anyone. Negotiation is a practice that builds on the foundations of the theory of rhetoric. Promotion and sale of goods is possible only with the ability to manipulate the minds of people and conduct a conversation so that the interlocutor accepts your conditions of the game. And one of the most important is the ability to argue. As you know, a dispute is not only an offensive wrangling - it is a great ability to give arguments and arguments that do not put the opponent in an awkward position, but at the same time an “invisible” compulsion to take the right side.

I would like to give some rules of the dispute:

Don't argue about trifles. Do not be like the medieval scholastics, who sometimes frenziedly argued about whether Adam had a navel or not.

Scholastics - followers of scholastic philosophy, representing the combination of Greek philosophy with the teachings of the "church fathers". The beginning of this philosophy dates back to the 9th century, and the decline to the 14th-15th centuries. We call scholastic everything that is dry, empty, which puts form above content.

During a dispute, do not lose sight of the main points that are causing the dispute. Sometimes it happens that the disputants, without finishing the dispute about the main thesis, move on to another, which is only of secondary importance, and from it to the third, etc. In the end, the dispute deviates from the main thesis, and often the disputants themselves cannot remember where, in fact, their dispute began.

Never get excited, but try to argue calmly. Of two disputants who are equal to each other in all other respects, the winner will be the one who possesses greater restraint, greater composure, since his thought works calmly.

Respect other people's opinions. If you consider them a delusion, then prove it calmly, without ridicule and harsh expressions.

If you have strong reasons or strong objections, then don't start with them. First, give other, not so weighty, but still true and convincing arguments, and in conclusion - the most decisive argument.

Discard unreliable arguments. Do not try to increase their quantity at the expense of quality.

Avoid double-edged arguments. Suppose you said: “Why, this is still a child; you cannot be strict about him. " The adversary may answer: "That is why it is necessary to restrain him, so that evil deeds do not become a habit with him."

Do not try to necessarily contradict the enemy in everything. It is sometimes helpful to agree with some of his reasons, as this can show the listeners your impartiality. But, having agreed with these arguments, try to find out that they are not directly related to the subject of the dispute and do not prove the correctness of the opponent.

Make sure there is no contradiction in your arguments.

And here it is impossible to get away from the theoretical part. Take, for example, the "32 tricks" of the philosopher A. Schopenhauer, each of which can be applied both together with others and separately. In addition to the ability to argue, you need to be able to joke - insert a "clever" word at the right time. And here it is precisely here that the knowledge of our great and mighty Russian language is manifested.

Now published great amount educational literature on the so-called black rhetoric, but after acquaintance with such, an unpleasant aftertaste remains, since all books are saturated with insolence and rudeness. But at the same time, if you are fluent in Russian, have a good vocabulary and are erudite enough, then you can take some techniques from this literature.

If we turn to the history of rhetoric, it is impossible not to highlight such a part of it as judicial eloquence, which is used even sow the day. And this is really so. After all, the victory of one of the parties to the "accusation" or "defense" depends on the ability to persuade.

Eloquence is an applied art; it has practical goals; therefore, decorating a speech just for decoration does not correspond to its purpose. Moral requirements aside, one might say that the worst speech is better than the most excellent. On the other hand, everyone recognizes that the main adornment of speech lies in thoughts. But this is a play on words; thoughts constitute the content, not the decoration of speech; you cannot mix the living quarters of a building with stucco ornaments on its facade or frescoes on the inner walls. Thus, we come to the main question: what value can flowers of eloquence have in court, or, better to say, we indicate the main point: rhetorical decorations, like other elements of judicial speech, have the right to exist only as a means of success, and not as sources aesthetic pleasure. Flowers of eloquence are italics in print, red ink in manuscripts.

On this topic, there is now an excellent program "The Court Is Coming", thanks to which you can evaluate the speaking skills of people who must bring justice to their side. Firstly, it is very important not to litter your speech with meaningless introductory sentences and meaningless interjections, which can be perceived as inconclusiveness and uncertainty in your thoughts.

In court, one of the most graceful rhetorical figures is applicable - the concession. It consists in the fact that the orator agrees with the position of the enemy and, taking the point of view of the latter, beats him with his own weapon; accepting, as deserved, the adversary's reproachful words, he immediately gives them another, flattering meaning for himself; or, on the contrary, bowing down to his claims of merit, immediately exposes them to be untenable.

This is just a little bit about judicial eloquence. A huge number of examples are given in the anthology of Russian rhetoric.

And to speak well, you need to know your language well; there is a wealth of words necessary condition good style. Strictly speaking, an educated person should freely use all in modern words their language, with the exception of special scientific or technical terms. May be educated person without knowing physiotherapy or higher mathematics; it is impossible - without knowing psychology, history, anatomy and native literature.

You can test yourself by separating the words we know from the familiar ones, i.e. such that we not only know, but also use in writing or in conversation. We will be amazed at our poverty. We for the most part too careless of words in conversation and too much care about them "in public." This is a fundamental mistake. Diligent selection of words "on the podium" betrays the artificiality of speech, when its immediacy is needed. On the contrary, in ordinary conversation, an exquisite syllable expresses respect for oneself and attention to the interlocutor. In his finely written little book "L" Art de Plaider, the Belgian lawyer De Baets says: "When you train yourself to designate each thing with the same word that accurately conveys its essence in your language, you will see how easily thousands of words will be appear at your disposal, as soon as an appropriate idea has arisen in your mind. Then your words will not contain those incongruities that in the daily speeches of our orators so irritate a sensitive listener. " a separate turn is deliberately created for a given thought; this is confirmed by their rough manuscripts.

Now the phrase "Not what the speaker says, but how he speaks" is very popular. I don’t know how anyone, but I completely agree with this idea. Unfortunately, in our time, a huge number of sects have appeared - this is one of the most popular associations. The creators of the sects understand exactly what they preach and what they should put into the consciousness of people. If you listen to their sermons to a psychologically stable person, then from the first words you can understand that their speeches are meaningless. But there are those who are subject to the pressure of other people and cannot resist the onslaught of biofields, etc.

If in judicial eloquence the main value is the integrity of thought, then in this case it is the euphony of the word. It doesn't matter what the speaker says, but how he does it. What images does speech fill, what techniques it uses, what psychological skills it uses. All this in a complex gives a stunning success - attracting thousands of people who accept strangers life positions and promote other people's ideas, far from Christian, immoral, perverted. At the same time, the leaders of these "gatherings" are highly educated people, erudite and able to own their word.

"To own your word" - sounds like? Sounds! Not everyone is given this great skill. But there are people whom you have never heard, but know them in absentia. Now I am talking about one of the outstanding scientists of our time, the chairman of the Soviet Cultural Foundation, academician Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev. It is not for nothing that his words serve as the epigraph of my work. I met him not so long ago, unfortunately, I have not heard his speeches and speeches. But I was so shocked by the energy that comes from his work.

His invaluable works are subject to the understanding of any person who is familiar with the history and culture of their country. He, it turns out, grab the attention of the reader, and he wants to absorb everything that this grandiose man writes about.

Acquaintance with D.S. Likhachev, I started with the book "Letters about the Good and the Beautiful."

These are just letters, but what meaning do they carry, what kindness and kindness they are imbued with. Let's start with the letter "On the art of syllable and philology." In this letter we are talking about the fact that philology is not an unambiguous concept, it is translated from Greek as "love of the word." Philology is a differentiated science, which can be conditionally divided into linguistics and literary criticism. But at the same time, the role of philology is precisely connecting, and therefore especially important. She connects historical source studies with linguistics and literary studies. It lends a broad aspect to the study of the history of the text. It combines literary studies and linguistics in the study of the style of the work - the most difficult area of ​​literary criticism.

Dmitry Sergeevich does not call to be specialists, professionals in the humanities. He says that, of course, all professions are needed, and these professions should be evenly and expediently distributed in society. But ... every specialist, every engineer, doctor, every nurse, every carpenter or turner, driver or loader, crane operator and tractor driver must have a cultural outlook. There should be no one who is blind to beauty, deaf to the word and real music, callous to good, unconscious to the past. And for all this you need knowledge, you need intelligence, given by the humanities. You need to read fiction and understand it, read history books and love the past of mankind, read travel literature, memoirs, art literature, visit museums, travel meaningfully and be mentally rich.

“Yes, be philologists as well, that is,“ lovers of the word, ”for the word stands at the beginning of culture and completes it, expresses it” D.S. Likhachev.

“It is necessary to study good, calm, intelligent speech for a long time and carefully - listening, memorizing, noticing, reading and studying. But even though it is difficult, it is necessary, it is necessary. Our speech is the most important part not only of our behavior (as I have already said), but also of our personality, our soul, mind, our ability not to succumb to the influences of the environment, if it "drags on". D.S. Likhachev.

And one more letter on how to perform. Public speaking is common now in our lives. Everyone needs to be able to speak at meetings, meetings, and maybe with lectures and reports like us - students. Thousands of books have been written over the centuries about the art of orators and lecturers. It is not worth repeating here everything that is known about oratory. The simplest thing is that in order for the performance to be interesting, the speaker himself should be interested in performing. He should be interested, to express his point of view, to convince in it, the material that he brings to the audience should be the most attractive for him, to some extent surprising. The speaker himself should be interested in the subject of his speech and be able to convey this interest to the audience - to make them feel the speaker's interest. Only then will it be interesting to listen to it. And one more thing: the speech should not contain several equal thoughts, ideas. In every speech there should be one dominant idea, one thought, which others obey. Then the performance will not only interest, but also be remembered. Basically, always speak from a good position. Even opposing any idea or thought, strive to build as support for the positive that is in the objections of the person arguing with you. Public speaking should always be from a public standpoint. Then it will meet with sympathy.

I would like to finish my work with these words: “We go through life, climbing the stairs. It could not be otherwise: why then live, if you remain at the same level, not gradually ascending the steps of experience - moral and aesthetic experience. Life requires complications "

List of used literature

1.Graudina L.K. - Russian rhetoric: Christomathy; printed from the edition: Likhachev D.S.

2.Likhachev D.S. - Letters about the good and the beautiful; M .; 2003, 154 p.

.Lobanov I.B., Khazagerov G.G. - Rhetoric; LLC "Phoenix" 2008, 3rd edition, 379 p.

.Russian culture in the modern world // New world... M., 1991. No. 1. p. 3-9.

Introduction

"He who does not know how to speak will not make a career!"

(Napoleon Bonaparte)

In conditions modern world our life success depends on the ability to correctly and in a positive way express your thoughts, pronounce the exact word found at the right moment. Unfortunately, not everyone has this ability. It seems that we all speak in different languages, not nearly touching the soul of the interlocutor with his speech. We just hope that the interlocutor fully understands everything that we say, and those words spoken will prompt him to action. At the same time, we believe that everything that we know, the interlocutor should also know. But this is the greatest delusion!

The ability to communicate effectively and feel easy and free in any company, in any audience is a unique ability that makes a person a successful and interesting person and allows you to achieve your goals in life! And therefore, I believe that this ability can and should be developed in oneself, so that your words are not only heard, but also perceived by the audience. Especially for those who do not own or want to improve their communication skills, various courses and trainings have been created.

Modern society conducts the most severe selection, and not everyone will be able to pass it with dignity. Only educated and competent people can achieve the desired success. And the ability to speak correctly and beautifully is extremely important here. After all, how a person conveys information to listeners, how he knows how to listen to his interlocutor, depends on how much they understand each other, and how productive their contact will be.

public speaking training career

Much attention has been paid to the art of communication since ancient times. Especially in Ancient Greece. There it was born oratory... This art developed rapidly in ancient countries and was widely used by people of different strata of society. And, probably, it was not in vain that our ancestors brought this science of communication to us.

I believe that the topic of my work is very relevant. First, while plunging into the history and customs of ancient civilization, we adopt, experience and learn many new things for ourselves. Secondly, it is competent communication in the mass information and socio-cultural sphere. And thirdly, the topic of my work can help those who want to connect their profession with positions that require communication skills. For example, a profession: philologist, art critic, advertiser, language teacher, journalist, writer, culturologist, tour guide, radio and TV presenter, print designer, etc.

Oratory

Oratorical speech- This is a type of monologue speech used in a situation where the speaker addresses a large audience or to a specific person for the purpose of persuasion. The science that studies this kind of art is called rhetoric. First of all, oration is not just the delivery of information, but an explanation and motivation for action or decision. Eloquence plays a vital role in the life of every country and every era in general. There were always people who knew how to correctly present information that, as a result, turned the course of history.

Public speech was the most widespread genre among the educated people of antiquity. Rhetoric was not the last among such genres of art as heroic epic or classical Greek drama. Of course, such a comparison is permissible only for the era in which these genres coexisted. Subsequently, the influence of European culture, rhetoric, which played a significant role in the Middle Ages, in modern times gave way to other genres of literature. But in vain. It should be especially noted that of all types of artistic words in the ancient world, public speech was most closely connected with modern political life and the level of education of people.

In ancient Greece speakers were valued far more than irreplaceable masters of a narrow profile. They performed in large squares, on the streets, or even on the battlefields, depending on the situation in which they found themselves. These masters of the word, with the manner of their narration, forced people to listen to what they were saying, think about the information received, and draw the correct conclusions, that is, the conclusions to which the speakers led their listeners.

In each Ancient civilization there were great orators who turned the tide of history.

In order to prove the significance and relevance of this art in modern life, I would like to tell you about great speakers and their achievements, so that you can clearly see that every self-respecting person living in the 21st century must have the skills of eloquence, if only in order to just be heard in the circles of loved ones them people.

Demosthenes (385-322 BC) ( Appendix 1) - the greatest master of oral, predominantly political speech, the great Athenian orator. Us with primary school his name and status as the greatest orator of the ancient era are familiar. Even in rhetoric lessons, we got acquainted with his life, and with how he achieved success in oratory. And now, so that you, too, have an idea of ​​this man, I will tell you a little about his life. He grew up in a wealthy family, his father owned workshops for the manufacture of furniture and weapons. Unfortunately, the boy was orphaned early, and he and all his fortune passed into the hands of guardians, who turned out to be dishonest people. His first appearance as an orator was a lawsuit against the robbers (guardians). The process went well.

Demosthenes knew before that that he would be an orator, so he prepared for a long time and studied with the famous Athenian master of eloquence Iseus (Appendix 2). The simplicity of the syllable, the conciseness and significance of the content, the strict logic of proof, rhetorical questions - all this was borrowed by Demosthenes from Iseus. Since childhood, he had a weak voice, and besides, he burst out. These shortcomings, as well as the indecision with which he stood on the podium, led to the failure of his first performances. However, with hard work, he managed to overcome the shortcomings of his pronunciation. There is a legend that, standing on the seashore, he recited poetry for hours, drowning out the sound of the coastal oxen with the sounds of his voice. He devoted a tremendous amount of attention to improving his speech, both at the beginning and at the end of his career. The speaker attached particular importance to the intonation coloration of the voice. When I was reading his biography, I drew attention to a small note of his contemporary, which I would like to quote to you. "They say that someone came to him with a request to make a speech at the trial in his defense, complaining that he was beaten." No, nothing like that happened to you, "Demosthenes said. Raising his voice, the visitor shouted:" How, Demosthenes, this was not with me ?! "-" Oh, now I clearly hear the voice of the offended and the victim, "- said the orator." Continuing to read the biography of this master of the word, I was more and more surprised at his success. Naturally, at first he did not succeed, and this terribly angered the speaker, but he only blamed himself for this. He worked long and hard on his speech, pronunciation, timbre of voice, facial expressions, gestures. He treated every little thing with awe. And yet he achieved the desired success. Over time, he began to win all legal proceedings, then became a significant person in the politics of Athens, and, finally, when people fell in love with him for his wisdom and honesty, he was able to organize a patriotic party against the Macedonian king Philip.

Looking at life path this great man, we can say with confidence that he achieved all this with the art of eloquence, which he studied for a long time and persistently throughout his life, enriching his knowledge.

Demosthenes was not the only one who shone in the arena of oratory. There were a huge number of equally talented people in this direction. Here is one of them.

Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) ( Appendix 3) is another brilliant representative of the oratory of the ancient world. Cicero also perfectly mastered the art of oratory. Not only crowds of people listened to him, but also the rulers. Oratory helped Cicero realize his ambitions and achieve heights in his career. Cicero, being an excellent orator, wrote several works in which he described the main theses of oratory. Cicero's speeches were based on deep research theoretical issues rhetoric, set out, in particular, in the dialogue "About the speaker", here are the main requirements for the speaker. From childhood, the little Roman received an excellent education, studied under the great orators of that time, Anthony and Crassus. He ideally knew Greek language, studied Greek philosophy.

It is to him that the statement belongs: "An orator is the one who will present any question competently, harmoniously, gracefully, with dignity in execution."

He was an excellent lawyer and politician. His political activities can be characterized by the words of his brother Quintus Cicero: "May you have confidence that the Senate regards you according to how you lived before, and looks at you as the protector of his authority, Roman horsemen and rich people based on your past life. they see you as a zealot of order and tranquility, while the majority, since your speeches in courts and at gatherings showed you half-polar, let them think that you will act in his interests. "

Here's another striking indicator that the ability to clearly express your thoughts will allow you to achieve your goals.

Many of our contemporaries think that they are good at speaking skills. But do not forget that there is such a thing as natural eloquence.

Natural oratory is often found in Everyday life... Imagine a situation: one person walks along the road, not seeing the danger that threatens him, and the other, raising his voice, warns him about it. Another example. One person fell into the water, and the other raises a cry so that those around him come to the rescue. Examples of natural eloquence can be found in villages, where people communicate loudly and emotionally, almost shouting to one another (across the street), or in a market where everyone communicates something about their product. Such expressions of eloquence do not require special training. The voice in such cases rises naturally, under the influence of feelings and relevant circumstances. This suggests that each of us has the skill of a master of the word. But in someone he stops at natural eloquence, and someone develops it further, mastering the true skills of oratory.

Especially for this work, I conducted a survey among passers-by in our city. The question I asked them was: "How well do you think you have developed the gift of an orator?" I also offered options for answers: "Little developed. Medium. Ideally I own this gift." And so the survey showed (Appendix 4) that many of those who answered the question have an average degree of this talent, and it is a pity that the indicators are exactly that.

There are situations when a person needs to say something beautifully and convincingly, but the necessary emotions in this moment no. This requires special self-management skills that can be acquired in the process of teaching public speaking. Then they come to our aid trainings and courses. But before I tell you what it is, I want to present the data of the next survey (Appendix 5). For this, I also took to the streets of our city. The question was: "If there were courses in public speaking in our city, would you go to study this?" The options provided were "Yes. No." And again, the survey came as a shock to me. The majority answered in the negative. Citing lack of time. But is it really impossible to set aside an hour of your time for such a useful cause?