What type should Russia be attributed to? Some believe that by the geographical location of its historical center, the influence of Christianity, and its historical roots in the Greco-Byzantine and Western European culture, Russia belongs to the Western type of civilizations. Others - that historically, the character of Russian society had a decisive impact oriental cultures(the Tatar conquest, the influence of the eastern neighbors, the vast expanses of Siberia), so that Russia can rather be attributed to the eastern civilizations. Still others believe that Russia cannot be attributed to either Western or Eastern civilizations, that it forms a special, Eurasian type, or “drifts” between the West and the Bocto. The last point of view was clearly expressed by L.I. Semennikova: “1. Russia is not an independent civilization and does not belong to any type of civilization in its pure form. 2. Russia is a civilizationally heterogeneous society. This is a special, historically formed conglomerate of peoples belonging to different types of development, united by a powerful, centralized state with a Great Russian core. Russia is geopolitically located between two powerful centers of civilizational influence - the East and the West; it includes peoples developing both according to the Western and Eastern options ... 4. At sharp turns, historical whirlwinds "shifted" the country either closer to the West, sometimes closer to the East. Russia is like a "drifting society" at the crossroads of civilizational magnetic fields. " BUT!!! the individual and distinctive (as a local civilization) and generic (as a Western-type civilization) features of Russia are quite clearly defined.

Civilization arose in the 30th century. back.
Civilization is reformatting its sociocults into new formats in the 2nd century. in future.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
The specificity of the Russian civilization was seen in mutual influence Western and Eastern elements on it, believing that it was in Russia that both the West and the East converged.

They separated Russia not only from the West, but also from Slavic world, insisting on the exclusivity of its civilization, due to the specifics of the "local development" of the Russian people. They saw the originality of Russian national identity, firstly, in the fact that the vast expanses of Russia, located in two parts of the world, left an imprint on its cultural world. Secondly, the Eurasians emphasized the special influence of the "Turanian" (Turkic-Tatar) factor on him.

An important place in the Eurasian concept of the civilizational development of Russia was assigned to the ideocratic state as the supreme master, possessing exclusive power and maintaining close ties with the masses.

The originality of Russian civilization was also seen in the fact that a single multinational Eurasian nation was the national substrate of its statehood.

Gradually, the eastern regional sociocults of the Russian civilization will form a new Russian civilization system, the Eurasian one.

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

WITH The modern civilizational identification of Russia can be represented as follows:

1 ... Russia is part of European and Western European civilization, and it should develop on this civilizational basis

2 ... Russia component a special Slavic civilization, is included in the civilizational orbit of states with a predominantly Slavic population

3 ... Russia is a special multiethnic civilization.

4 ... Russia has absorbed the elements of many other civilizations, and this alloy has formed something independent, unique and irreducible to any of the components of the alloy.

O The main categories of the socio-cultural dynamics of Russia as an intermediate civilization are inversion and mediation; inversion is characterized by an intense focus of activity on the reproduction of a certain type of society.

G

M Unification, on the contrary, conditions the constructive intensity of human activity on the basis of rejection of the absolutization of polarities and maximization of attention to their interpenetration, to their coexistence through each other.

D Another feature of Russia as an intermediate civilization is the split of cultures and social relations. At the same time, the split is considered as a pathological state of society, characterized by a stagnant contradiction between culture and social relations, between subcultures of one culture.

D The split is characterized by a “vicious circle”: the activation of positive values ​​in one part of the split society sets in motion the forces of another part of society that rejects these values. The danger of a split is that, by violating the moral unity of society, it undermines the very basis for the reproduction of this unity, opening the way for social disorganization.

WITH according to one of the concepts. Russia, not being an independent civilization, is a civilizationally heterogeneous society. This is a special, historically formed conglomerate of peoples belonging to different types of development, united by powerful, centralized state with a Great Russian core.

R Russia, geopolitically located between two powerful centers of civilizational influence - the East and the West, includes peoples developing both in the Western and Eastern variants. Russia is like a constantly “drifting society” in the ocean of modern civilizational worlds.

R The Russian civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations. Its basic values ​​were formed long before the adoption of Christianity, in the 1st millennium BC. Based on these values, the Russian people managed to create the greatest state in world history, harmoniously uniting many other peoples.

T Such main features of Russian civilization as the predominance of spiritual and moral foundations over material ones, the cult of philanthropy and truthfulness, non-acquisitiveness, the development of distinctive collectivist forms of democracy embodied in the community and artel, contributed to the formation in Russia of a distinctive economic mechanism, functioning according to its internal inherent in the laws, self-sufficient to provide the population of the country with everything necessary and almost completely independent from other countries.

R Since its inception, the Russian civilization has absorbed a huge religious and cultural diversity of peoples, the normative-value space of existence of which was not capable of spontaneous fusion, of synthesis in a unity universal for the Eurasian area. Orthodoxy was the spiritual foundation of Russian culture, it turned out to be one of the factors in the formation of Russian civilization, but not its normative value basis.

T Statehood became the akim basis, “the dominant form of social integration”. Around the XV century. there is a transformation of the Russian state into a universal one, by which Toynbee meant a state that seeks to “swallow” the entire civilization that gave birth to it.

G the loyalty of such a goal gives rise to the state's claims to be not just a political institution, but to have some kind of spiritual significance, generating a single national identity.

NS Therefore, in the Russian civilization there was no such universal normative-value order, as in the West, which would be autonomous in relation to the state and cultural diversity.

B Moreover, the state in Russia was constantly striving to transform the national-historical consciousness, ethnocultural archetypes, trying to create appropriate structures that “justify” the activities of the central government.

D the physicalism of social life in Russia was of a different nature than in the West. It was expressed, first of all, in such conflicting tendencies, where one of the parties was always the state.

WITH The methods of resolving conflicts in Russia were also materially different, where their participants not only deny each other, but strive to become the only social integrity. This leads to a deep social split in society, which cannot be “removed” by compromise; it can only be suppressed by destroying one of the opposing sides.

TO In addition, one should take into account the uniqueness of the “patrimonial state” that developed in the era of the Muscovite kingdom. The Moscow princes, and then the Russian tsars, who had tremendous power and prestige, were convinced that the land belonged to them, that the country was their property, because it was built and created at their behest.

T This opinion also assumed that everyone living in Russia are subjects of the state, servants who are in direct and unconditional dependence on the sovereign, and therefore have no right to claim either property or any inalienable personal rights.

G Speaking about the peculiarities of the formation of the Moscow state, it should be noted that from the very beginning it was formed as a "military-national", the dominant and main driving force behind the development of which was the permanent need for defense and security, accompanied by the strengthening of the policy of internal centralization and external expansion.

R Under the conditions of the socio-ecological crisis of the 15th century, the Russian state arrogated to itself unlimited rights in relation to society. This largely predetermined the choice of the path of social development associated with the transfer of society to a mobilization state, the basis of which was non-economic forms of state management.

NS Therefore, Russian civilization was characterized by a different genotype of social development than in Western Europe. If Western European civilization moved from an evolutionary path to an innovative one, then Russia followed a mobilization path, which was carried out due to the conscious and “violent” intervention of the state in the mechanisms of society's functioning.

M The obilizational type of development is one of the ways of adapting the socio-economic system to the realities of a changing world and consists in systematic appeal in conditions of stagnation or crisis to emergency measures to achieve extraordinary goals, which are the conditions for the survival of society and its institutions expressed in extreme forms.

NS a characteristic feature of the social genotype of Russia has become the total regulation of the behavior of all subsystems of society using power-coercive methods.

O One of the features of Russia's mobilization development was the dominance of political factors and, as a consequence, the hypertrophied role of the state represented by the central government. This found expression in the fact that the government, setting certain goals and solving development problems, constantly took the initiative, systematically using various measures of coercion, guardianship, control and other regulations.

D Another feature was that the special role of external factors forced the government to choose such development goals that constantly outstripped the country's socio-economic capabilities.

V In Russia, in the West and East, different types of people have formed with their specific styles of thinking, value orientations, and demeanor.

V In Russia, an Orthodox (“Ioannovsky”), messianic type of Russian man has developed. In Orthodoxy, the eschatological side of Christianity is most strongly expressed, therefore the Russian person is largely an apocalyptic or nihilist.

In this connection, “John's” man possesses a sensitive distinction between good and evil, he vigilantly notices the imperfection of all actions, morals and institutions, never being satisfied with them and never ceasing to seek perfect good.

NS Recognizing holiness as the highest value, “John's” man strives for absolute good, and therefore considers earthly values ​​as relative and does not elevate them to the rank of “sacred” principles.

E If the “Ioannovsky” person, who always wants to act in the name of something absolute, doubts the ideal, then he can reach extreme ochlocracy or indifference to everything, and therefore is able to quickly go from incredible tolerance and humility to the most unbridled and boundless rebellion ...

R In the process of civilizational interaction, the Russian civilization reveals messianic tendencies with an orientation toward higher value-normative orientations (the old authoritative and imperious, paternalistic multinational statehood).

NS Regarding Russia's attitude to Western or Eastern civilizational types, it can be said that Russia does not fully fit into either the Western or the Eastern type of development. Russia has a huge territory and therefore Russia is a historically formed conglomerate of peoples belonging to different types of development, united by a powerful, centralized state with a Great Russian core.

R Russia, geopolitically located between two powerful centers of civilizational influence - the East and the West, includes peoples developing both in the Western and Eastern variants.

H For a long time, the development of Russia was influenced by the states of both eastern (Mongolia, China) and western (during the reforms of Peter I, a lot was borrowed from the western type of development) civilizational types.

H Some scientists distinguish a separate Russian type of civilization. So it is impossible to say exactly what civilizational type Russia belongs to.

TO the most frequently distinguished features of Russian civilization are: a) autocratic form of state power, "patrimonial state"; b) collectivist mentality; c) an insignificant amount of economic freedom; d) the subordination of society to the state (or the dualism of society and state power).

M Thinkers and scientists who tried in the past to grasp the civilizational specifics of Russia, as a rule, pointed to its special character, to the combination and interweaving of Western and Eastern elements.

NS Although researchers of the Russian specifics pointed to the conflict nature of the combination of different traditions within the framework of the Russian community, it was they who set the task of synthesizing various principles - Western and Eastern. One way or another, in the combination of Western and Eastern elements, both of them saw a defining feature of Russia, which determined the uniqueness of its socio-cultural appearance.

R Russian civilization is a combination of extremely contradictory tendencies. In it, a passionate craving for the Christian faith and holiness coexists with powerful manifestations in the most varied forms of the pagan principle.

WITH on the one hand, in the spiritual warehouse of the Russian person, there was a tendency (especially clearly among the peasantry) to obey natural rhythms; on the other hand, in Russian spirituality there has always been a striving, most clearly manifested at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, to establish absolute control over nature.

D Russian life was characterized by a tendency towards the complete dissolution of the individual principle in the community (community), towards total control over the individual by social institutions - from the community to the state, and at the same time a powerful desire for freedom without borders - the famous Russian "will", which periodically came out to the surface of Russian life.

_____________________________________________________________________________

A... V. Lubsky

V In the polemics between Westernizers and Slavophiles, two opposite versions of the civilizational affiliation of Russia were formed. One version linked the future of Russia with its self-identification in line with the European socio-cultural tradition, the other with the development of its distinctive and cultural self-sufficiency.

TO. Leontiev developed the concept of the Eastern Christian (Byzantine) cultural "registration" of Russia.

H Danilevsky considered the most promising "Slavic type" of civilization opposed to Western culture, most fully expressed in the Russian people.

A Toynbee viewed Russian civilization as a "daughter" zone of Orthodox Byzantium.

WITH There is also a Eurasian concept of the civilizational development of Russia, whose representatives, while denying both the eastern and western character of Russian culture, at the same time saw its specificity in the mutual influence of western and eastern elements on it, believing that it was in Russia that both West and East converged. They separated Russia not only from the West, but also from the Slavic world, insisting on the exclusivity of its civilization, due to the specifics of the "local development" of the Russian people. They saw the originality of the Russian (Russian) national identity, firstly, in the fact that the vast expanses of Russia, located in two parts of the world, left an imprint on its cultural world... Secondly, the Eurasians emphasized the special influence of the "Turanian" (Turkic-Tatar) factor on him.

V An important place in the Eurasian concept of the civilizational development of Russia was assigned to the ideocratic state as the supreme master, possessing exclusive power and maintaining close ties with the masses.

WITH The peculiarity of Russian civilization was also seen in the fact that a single multinational Eurasian nation acted as the national substrate of its statehood.

TO the defining features of Eastern societies include "the indivisibility of property and administrative power"; "Economic and political dominance - often despotic - of the bureaucracy"; “The subordination of society to the state”, the absence of “guarantees of private property and the rights of citizens”.

D la western civilization on the contrary, guarantees of private property and civil rights as an incentive for innovation and creativity; harmony of society and state; differentiation of power and property (E. Gaidar). In this civilizational interpretation, Russia looks like a society of the Eastern type.

A... Akhiezer also distinguishes between two types of civilizations - traditional and liberal. "The dominance of a static type of reproduction is inherent in traditional civilization, which is aimed at maintaining society, the entire system of social relations, and the individual in accordance with some idealizing notion of the past."

V liberal civilization "the dominant position is occupied by intensive reproduction, which is characterized by the desire to reproduce society, culture, constantly deepening its content, increasing social efficiency, vital activity."

R Russia, Akhiezer believes, in its historical development has gone beyond the framework of traditional civilization, embarked on the path of mass, albeit primitive, utilitarianism. But, nevertheless, she failed to overcome the border of liberal civilization.

NS This means that Russia occupies an intermediate position between the two civilizations, which allows us to speak of the existence of a special intermediate civilization that combines elements of social relations and culture of both civilizations.

O The main categories of sociocultural dynamics of Russia as an intermediate civilization are inversion and mediation. The inversion “is characterized by an intense orientation of activity towards the reproduction of a certain type of society.

G The possibility of inversion at every moment of time does not require long and painful development of fundamentally new solutions, but opens the way for rapid, logically instantaneous transitions from the present situation to the ideal one, which, possibly, in new clothes, reproduces some element of already accumulated cultural wealth.

M unity, on the contrary, conditions the constructive intensity of human activity on the basis of refusal to absolutize polarities and maximize attention to their interpenetration, to their coexistence through each other.

D Another feature of Russia as an intermediate civilization, according to Akhiezer, is the split of cultures and social relations. At the same time, the split is considered as a pathological state of society, characterized by a stagnant contradiction between culture and social relations, between subcultures of one culture.

D The split is characterized by a “vicious circle”: the activation of positive values ​​in one part of the split society sets in motion the forces of another part of society that rejects these values. The danger of a split lies in the fact that, by destroying the moral unity of society, it undermines the very basis for the reproduction of this unity, opening the way for social disorganization.

NS When considering the specifics of Russian civilization, special attention is paid to geographical, geopolitical and cultural-political factors.

V In particular, it is noted that the huge space, the abundance of free land gave rise to the habit of extensive forms of management, contributed to constant migration.

O The vastness of the territories required a huge state apparatus of power and its active control of all spheres of society, and above all the area of ​​economic relations, with minimal efficiency of feedback from society. The huge role of the state, its constant interference in the private sphere of social relations held back the formation of civil society in Russia.

B The geopolitical factor was of great importance, according to some historians. The continuous military threat, permanent rivalry with Western Europe required constant mobilization efforts on the part of the state, both in the field of economic and social relations.

V the interference of the state in the economic life of society was accompanied by a kind of enslavement of the estates. By this, the state in Russia sought to streamline the functioning of the social organism, proceeding from its own interests and needs. This gave rise to legal oppression and legal nihilism of the lower strata of society and the legal chaos of the bureaucratic apparatus of power.

V ever more closely intertwined with the general European process, Russian statehood at the same time developed in the manner of Asian despotism, which, moreover, was supported by etatized Orthodoxy.

V All this was also accompanied by a stormy social reaction on the part of various estates, which predetermined a kind of pendulum rhythm in the development of Russian statehood, which can be described according to the scheme: reform - counterreform - "time of troubles" (revolution) - strengthening of the statist principle.

R The role of the cultural and political factor consisted primarily in the self-expansion of the statist principle, which left no other way of reforming the country, except for a kind of dissolution of society in the state.

++++++++++++++++++++

SECTION 1

CIVILIZATION SEARCH OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY

Topic 1. Theoretical and methodological foundations civilizational approach to history.

1. What does history science study? What is its subject?

Sources:

• History of Russia IX-XX centuries .: Textbook \ ed. G.A. Amon, N.P. Ionicheva.-M .: INFRA-M, 2002. p. 3-4

History, literally translated from Greek, is a narrative, a story about what has been learned, researched.

History is a science that studies the past of human society in all its spatial concreteness and diversity in order to understand the present and development trends of the future.

The object of study is the past of mankind.

Between the reality that really existed, i.e. the past, and the result of the scientist's research - a scientifically recreated picture of the world - is an intermediate link. It is called a historical source. This is the subject of study.

It is customary to distinguish 7 main groups of historical sources: written, material, ethnographic, oral, linguistic, photo film documents, soundtracks.

2. What are the main types of civilizations. Which of them does Russia belong to?

Sources:

• History of Russia IXX-XX centuries .: Textbook \ ed. G.A. Amon, N.P. Ionicheva - M .: INFRA-M, 2002.

Civilization is a community of people with a similar mentality, common fundamental values ​​and ideals, as well as stable features in a socio-political organization, economy, and culture.

There are three types of development of civilizations: non-progressive, cyclical and progressive.

TO non-progressive type of development include peoples living in accordance with nature (aborigines of Australia, some tribes of Africa, American Indians, small peoples of Siberia and northern Europe). These peoples see the purpose and meaning of existence in the preservation of customs, methods there, traditions that do not violate the unity with nature.

Cyclic type of development originated in ancient times in the countries of the East (India, China, etc.), society and people in it exist within the framework of historical time, which is divided into past, present and future. For these peoples, the golden age is in the past, it is poeticized and serves as a role model.

The cyclical (eastern) type of civilization is still widespread in Asia, Africa, America. The standard of living of the people with this type of development is extremely low. Therefore, in the twentieth century, projects appeared to accelerate and develop society and improve human life.

Progressive type of civilization development (western civilization) main features:

• The class structure of society with developed forms of trade unions, parties, programs, ideologies;
• Private property, the market as a way of regulating the functioning, high prestige of entrepreneurship;
• Horizontal connections between individuals and cells of society, independent of power: economic, social, cultural, spiritual;
• A legal democratic state that regulates social and class relations to resolve social conflicts, ensure civil peace and implement the ideas of progress.

From the standpoint of ethnogenesis and civilizational approach, Russia does not belong to any of the three types of civilizations in its purest form. Russia is a special civilization, a historically formed conglomerate of peoples belonging to different types of development, united by a powerful centralized state, based on the Great Russian Orthodox core.

Russia is located between two powerful centers of civilizational influence - the East and the West, and includes peoples developing both in the Eastern and Western versions.

Topic 2. Formation and main stages of development of the Old Russian state. Civilization of Ancient Russia.

1. Name the main stages in the development of the Old Russian state.

Sources:

• History of Russia IX-XX centuries .: Textbook \ ed. G.A. Amon, N.P. Ionicheva - M .: INFRA-M, 2002. p. 38-58.
• Domestic history before 1917: textbook \ ed. Prof. AND I. Froyanov. - M .: Gardariki, 2002. From 19-87.

Stage 1. (IX - middle of X centuries) - the time of the first Kiev princes.

862 - a mention in the annals of the vocation of the Varangian prince Rurik to reign in Novgorod. 882 The unification of Novgorod and Kiev under the rule of Prince Oleg (879-912). 907, 911 - campaigns of Prince Oleg to Constantinople. The signing of the treaty between Russia and the Greeks. 912-945 Igor's reign. 945 - Uprising in the land of the Drevlyans. 945-972 biennium - the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich. 967-971 biennium - War of Prince Svyatoslav with Byzantium.

STAVROPOL 2007

BBK 63.3 (2) Ya73

Russia in world civilization (IX-XIX centuries) Tutorial for independent work students. –Stavropol. Publishing house: SGMA, 2007. ISBN

Compiled by: L.I. Tsapko

Student self-study study guide reviews milestones Russian history from IX to XIX century The history of Russia is viewed in the context of world civilization. Educational material presented in chronological order by chapter. The use of elements of a visual-graphic nature allows you to better understand and assimilate the material, get closer to comprehending the complex and contradictory historical process.

The textbook is intended for students of medical and pharmaceutical universities.

Reviewers:

Bulygina T.A., Doctor of History, Professor, Head. department. history of Russia SSU

Kalinchenko S.B.., Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of History of SSAU

© Stavropol State

Medical Academy, 2007

Foreword

In the manual, an attempt is made in accordance with the requirements of the current State Standard Russian Federation for higher educational institutions from new positions and in a holistic manner to analyze Russian history, to show history as a process, to reveal the logic of the development of Russian history. Some highlights and trends national history are given against the background of a foreign one, since as a person cannot know himself outside of communication with other people, so the history of one country, even such a specific one as Russia, cannot be understood and comprehended without comparing its fundamental points with the history of other countries. Russian history simply does not exist outside of European and world history. And not only in a chronological or geographic sense. Russian specificity and even "uniqueness" is a kind of manifestation of global processes. Understanding Russian history - necessary condition to understand what is happening in the world. The manual is aimed at helping the student to form concrete ideas about the most important events that determined the course of world history, and about the socio-historical structures that underlie it. When writing the manual, two approaches were used - problematic and chronological, which allow analyzing the most important aspects of the life of the state and society for a long time. Limited volume study guide and its focus on a contingent already familiar from school education with some historical facts, forced to abandon the detailed presentation of all the facts in order to focus on the turning points of Russian history. Comprehension of history is a creative and diverse process, therefore it is impossible without thoughtful and intense independent work. Visual diagrams, diagrams, tables presented in the manual should help students.

Topic 1. Methodological problems and basic concepts of historical science. The place and role of Russia in history.

Plan

1. Subject, methods and sources for studying the history of the Fatherland.

2. Russian historical science. Features of Russian history.

3. Conditions for the formation of the Russian statehood: factors that determined the features of Russian civilization.

History is the collective memory of the people. Loss of historical memory destroys public consciousness, makes life meaningless. As the great Pushkin wrote, "respect for the past is the trait that distinguishes education from savagery."

The term is a history of Ionian origin. Ionia became the birthplace of early Greek prose, on which he wrote his essay Herodotus- "father of history" V century. BC. However, a clear distinction between science and art was not yet drawn at that time. This is clearly reflected in the mythology of the ancient Greeks: the goddess Athena patronized both the arts and sciences, and the muse Cleo was considered the patroness of history. The works of ancient authors included information on both history and literature, geography, astronomy, and theology.

Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics... In this it does not differ from other sciences. As in other sciences, in history there is an accumulation and discovery of new facts, theory is being improved taking into account the development of other branches of knowledge (cultorology, historical
psychology, sociology, etc.), methods of processing and analysis of sources (for example, the use of mathematical methods). Most often in historical science, two groups of methods are used: general scientific and special historical.

General scientific methods Are methods empirical research(observation, measurement, experiment); methods of theoretical research (idealization, formalization, modeling, induction, deduction, thought experiment, systems approach, historical, logical, etc.) General scientific methods as such are necessary at the theoretical level of historical science. With regard to specific historical situations, they are used to develop special historical methods for which they serve as a logical basis.

Special-historical methods represent a different combination of general scientific methods, adapted to the characteristics of the studied historical objects. These include: historical and genetic; historical and comparative; historical and typological; historical and systemic; method

diachronic analysis.

History is a science that studies the past in the totality of specific facts, seeking to identify the causes and consequences of the events that took place, to understand and evaluate the course of the historical process ... Can't create new world bypassing the past - people knew it
at all times.
All this
testifies in favor of the fact that knowledge of history makes it clearer
understand modernity.
The task of history is to generalize and process the accumulated human experience. The subject of history is the study of human society as a contradictory and unified process.

It has long been noticed that stones speak if they are stones of history. -
The evidence of conclusions is an obligatory feature of scientific knowledge. Isto
Riya operates with precisely established facts. As in others
sciences, in history there is an accumulation and discovery of new facts.

These facts are drawn from historical sources. Historical sources - these are all remnants of a past life, all evidence of pro
shlom. Currently, there are four main groups
historical sources: 1) real;

2) written; 3) and
visual; 4) phonic.

Historians investigate all facts without exception. The collected factual material requires its own explanation, clarification of the reasons for the development of society. This is how theoretical concepts. Thus, on the one hand, knowledge is needed -
specific facts, on the other hand, the historian must comprehend the whole
collection of facts in order to identify the causes and patterns
development of society.

At different times, historians have differently explained the reasons and patterns of development of the history of our country. Chroniclers since the times
Nestor believed that the world develops according to divine providence and divine will. With the advent of experienced, rationalistic knowledge
historians as the determining force of the historical process -
began to look for objective factors. Thus, M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) and V.N. Tatishchev (1686 - 1750), who stood at the origins of historical science, believed that knowledge and enlightenment determine the course of the historical process. the main idea permeating the works
N. M. Karamzina (1766 - 1826), ("History of the state of the Russian
»), - the need for a wise autocracy for Russia.

The largest Russian historian of the nineteenth century. S. M. Soloviev (1820-1870
) ("History of Russia since ancient times") saw the course of history
countries in the transition from ancestral relations to the family and further to
statehood. The three most important factors: the nature of the country, nature -
tribes and the course of external events, as the historian believed, objectively determined the course of Russian history.
Student S. M. Solovyova V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841 - 1911) ("Course of Russian history"), developing the ideas of his teacher, he believed that it was necessary to identify the entire set of facts and factors (geographical, -
ethnic, economic, social, political, etc.),
characteristic for each period. "Human nature, human society
the state and nature of the country - these are the three main forces that are
yat is a human hostel ".

Russian specificity and even its "uniqueness" are only a kind of manifestation of global processes. The manifestation is often extreme. But this is precisely why understanding Russian history is a necessary condition for understanding what is happening in the world. And, on the contrary: without an understanding of world history, the Russian past really turns into a chain of ridiculous mysteries, which, as the poet said, cannot be understood by the mind or measured by a common yardstick. Disciple of the prominent liberal historian Klyuchevsky Mikhail Pokrovsky came to the conclusion that the Russian past needs a radical rethinking, and the Marxist analysis provides the key to a new understanding of events. K. Marx in the middle of the 19th century. formulated the concept of a materialistic explanation of history, which was based on the formational approach. He proceeded from the following principle: if humanity is progressively developing as a single whole, then all of it must go through certain stages in its development. The thinker called these stages "socio-economic formations." The totality of production relations forms its basis, over which political, legal and other relations are tuned, which, in turn, correspond to certain forms of social consciousness: morality, religion, art, philosophy, science, etc. The transition from one socio-economic formation to another is carried out on the basis of a social revolution. In this regard, the class struggle was declared the most important driving force of history. However, a person appears in this theory only as a cog in a powerful objective mechanism.

In the 30s of the XX century, a new direction of historical thought arose in France, which received the name of the school "Annals". Followers of this trend often use the concept of civilization. Civilization - a set or a certain level of achievements of material and spiritual culture, techniques and methods of human contact with nature, a way of life, established stereotypes of thinking and behavior... Scientists believe that history is designed to study a person in the unity of all his social manifestations. Social relations and labor activity, forms of consciousness and collective feelings, customs and folklore - in these angles a person appears in the works of this direction. The weakness of the methodology of the civilizational approach lies in the amorphousness of the criteria for distinguishing the types of civilizations. Intellectual and spiritual and moral structures of a person undoubtedly play a major role in history, but their indicators are poorly perceptible, vague. With all the diversity of civilizations in the history of mankind, two macrocommunities can be distinguished - the East and the West.

In domestic and world historiography, there is
There are three main points of view on the problem of singularities
(specifics) of Russian history. Advocates of the first, adhering to the concept
unilinearity of world history, believe that all countries
us and peoples, including Russia and the Russian nation, pro
walk in their evolution the same, common to all,
stages, move along one, common for all, path.
Certain features of Russian history are interpreted
representatives of this school as a manifestation of lagging behind
loyalty to Russia and Russians. In the brightest
In what form is this point of view presented in the writings of you
a given Russian historian Sergei Mikhailovich Co-
Lovyeva.

Supporters of the second approach to Russian history is
go from concept multilinearity of historical times
ornate... They believe that the history of mankind consists
from the stories of a number of distinctive civilizations, each
giving of which mainly develops (developed)
any one (or a specific combination of several
kih) side of human nature, evolves along
your own way; one of these civilizations is the Russian (Slavic) civilization. From
domestic researchers, this approach is most
more comprehensive form is justified by the late Slavophiles
scrap by Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky.

A third group of authors is trying to reconcile both approaches. A prominent Russian historian and public figure belonged to the representatives of this trend.
Pavel Nikolaevich Milyukov... In his opinion, in history
As a result, three main groups are distinguished
conditions producing it: “The first condition is an internal tendency
tion, the internal law of development inherent in every society and for every society the same. Second
condition
this lies in the peculiarities of that material
environment, environment, among which this society is destined to develop.
Finally, the third condition is the influence
the development of an individual human personality on the course of historical
sky process ".

So, representatives of the three approaches in different ways
They raise the problem of the peculiarities of Russian history. However
less all of them recognize the impact on its course of some
powerful factors (causes, conditions), under the influence of co-
the history of Russia is significantly different from that of
ries of Western societies.

What are these conditions? In domestic and foreign historiography, 4 factors are usually distinguished, which determined the features (lagging behind
loyalty, originality, originality) of the Russian
stories: natural and climatic; geopolitical; religious; social organization.

Influence natural and climatic factor noted by all researchers, one of the last to dwell on this problem L.V. Milov using a solid factual basis. Russia lies in the zone of action of the Arctic anticyclone, which makes temperature fluctuations significant up to 35-40 degrees per year. In Europe, the peasant has no "off season", which teaches him to systematic work. In Russia, deep freezing of the soil and a short spring, turning into a hot summer, force the peasant, after the domestic worries of the winter season, to quickly switch to agricultural work - plowing, sowing, the speed of which depends on his well-being throughout the year. Summer for the Russian peasant is a period of suffering, of the utmost exertion of strength. This develops in a Russian person the ability to “give his best, do a great job in a short time. But the time of suffering is short. Winter in Russia lasts from 4 to 7 months. Therefore, the main form of attitude towards work is a leisurely-passive attitude.

However, such an attitude to work and life is associated with another value of the Russian person - his patience, which has become one of the traits of the national character. It is better to "endure" than to undertake anything, to change the course of life. This behavior is justified by the nature of the labor and settlement of the Russian peasants. The development of the forests that covered most the territory of the country, deforestation and uprooting of forests, plowing of the land required the collective work of several families. Working in a team, people acted in a uniform way, trying not to stand out from others. The cohesion of the team was more important than the effectiveness of the activities of each of the people who made it up. As a result, individualism has developed poorly among Russians, forcing them to strive for initiative, increasing labor efficiency and personal enrichment. The support of the collective guaranteed the peasant a certain amount of irresponsibility in the performance of certain actions, the opportunity to act "at random" without thinking. The serf or dependent peasant in Europe fled to the city, which was an island of democracy and law in the midst of a sea of ​​feudal willfulness. There was nowhere else to run, except over the sea. In Russia they fled not to the city, but to the Cossacks, from where "there was no extradition", to the schismatics - to the outskirts, to undeveloped lands. As a result, urban, bourgeois values ​​were developed in Europe, and communal, collectivist ones in Russia. The European solved his problems by developing prudence and self-interest, and the Russian - affirming the equalizing collectivist ideals. At the political level, this manifested itself, respectively, in bourgeois revolutions, as a result of which the state as an institution fell into dependence on civil society and the values ​​of liberalism and democracy were established or peasant wars, during which the Cossacks and peasants tried to embody their egalitarian ideals in the life of the state. The result of such attempts was only the strengthening of the authoritarian, undivided power of the state.

Colonization undermined demographic conditions historical development... If in Europe the growth of population density stimulated the processes of creating cities, class formation, intensification of the economy, then in Russia each of the stages of colonization was associated with a greater or lesser drop in population density in the center of the country. This was a consequence of the fact that Russian colonization was carried out not only as a result of population growth, but also due to resettlement, flight of people from nomads, social oppression and hunger. Colonization of lands in the IX-XVII centuries. more and more alienated Russia from Europe, hindered the assimilation of the advanced achievements of European civilization. In the IX-XII centuries. the ancient Russian state was created on the great European trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", linking the northern and southern Europe... Two centers ancient Russia: Novgorod and Kiev stood at the junction points of this route. However, already in the XIII century. the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" began to yield its role to the "amber route" that went through central Europe. This was due to the transition of the role of the leading world power in the Mediterranean from Byzantium to the Republic of Venice. As a result, Russia lost its political weight and became the periphery of Europe. ... In the process of colonizing the eastern lands, Russia became part of the Eurasian geopolitical space, in which authoritarian forms of power prevailed since ancient times.

The paradox of Russia's historical development was that it was damaged not only by a drop in the natural productivity of natural forces as it moved from the chernozem southwest to the loamy lands of the northeast in the 13th century (the yield dropped by 1.5-2 times). "Asian", stagnation in the development of industry led to the fact that stagnation was also promoted by the discovery and development of new natural resources... Concentration in the 1st half of the 19th century of serf heavy industry in the Urals, a rich natural resources, led to a sharp lag behind Russia from the West in this industry, which is important for the industrialization and defense of the country. It was the wealth of resources that made the introduction of free labor and new technological processes in metallurgy and metalworking considered unimportant. The development of the black earth lands of the Black Sea and the Volga region led not only to an increase in yields, but also to the development of serfdom in the 18th century, which slowed down social development... Until the beginning of the 20th century, the unprecedented wealth of Siberia was practically unused. Russia's trouble was not a lack of natural resources, but in the socio-political system and cultural tradition, permeated with communal and Asian influences, which did not allow using these resources.

The historical life of the Russian people was extremely complicated by such a factor as natural openness of the borders of Russian lands for foreign invasions from the West and East ... The constant threat of military incursions and the openness of the border lines demanded colossal efforts from the Russian and other peoples of Russia to ensure their security: significant material costs and human resources. Moreover, security interests demanded a concentration of popular efforts: as a result, the role of the state should have increased enormously.

About the next geopolitical factor – isolation from sea trade ... To break through to the seas, Russia had to wage intense bloody wars for centuries.

If the factors considered above have shaped the body of Russia, temperament, skills and habits of the Russian people, then religion - Eastern Christianity- brought up their soul. In Eastern Christianity, the confrontation between secular power and the church ends with the complete absorption of the secular power of the church. The royal power, standing over everything, is not controlled by anything.

Orthodoxy teaches that God is separate from the world and unknowable, but God can be seen and felt. No definition can be applied to God. Hence, the idea of ​​mystery and unknowability is strong in Russian culture (Russia is a Sphinx "in Blok," Russia cannot be understood with the mind "in Tyutchev, etc.)

The Western European idea of ​​knowledge of God teaches that since Christ (God) descended to earth, he is cognizable. The civilization of the West seeks to cognize the object not as a whole, but analytically, defining, structuring, dismembering, describing features. Protestant-Catholic culture is based on rational knowledge, and Russian-Orthodox culture is based on holistic knowledge. The culture of the West is dialogical, the culture of Russia is monologic.

Under the influence of the above factors:
native-climatic, geopolitical, religious
go, - a specific social
organization. Its main elements are as follows:

primary economic and social unit - corporate
walkie-talkie (community, artel, partnership, collective farm, cooperative
tiv, etc.), and not a private property education,
as in the West;

the state is not a superstructure over
civil society, as in Western countries, and
the backbone, and sometimes the demiurge (creator) of civil society;

statehood either has
sacred character, or ineffective ("turmoil");

state, society, personality are not divided, not
autonomous, as in the West, but mutually permeable, whole
stny;

the core of statehood is
radio service nobility (nobility, nomenclature).
This social organization was distinguished by its extreme
tea resistance and, changing their forms, and not essence,
was recreated after each shock of the Russian
history, ensuring the vitality of Russian society.

What is the place of Russia in the world society? What type of civilizations can it be attributed to?

1. Russia - peripheral, local, Orthodox Christian civilization... According to the sociologist A.J. Toynbee, Western European and Russian civilization have a "common mother," a sisterhood. "Each local civilization, experiencing similar and interconnected paths with neighboring stages, at the same time had its own unique destiny, its own rhythm, now approaching, now moving away from the countries moving in the vanguard." Determining the place of Russian civilization, the Russian philosopher N. Ya. Danilevsky wrote in his book "Russia and Europe": "If Russia ... does not belong to Europe by right of birth, it belongs to it by right of adoption."

2. Russia is a country of the eastern type. Attempts were made to include Russia in the European version - the adoption of Christianity, the reforms of Peter I, but they were unsuccessful. October 1917 returned Russia to eastern despotism. Evidence of the eastern type of development is the cyclical development of Russia - from reforms to counterreforms.

3. Russia is a special Eurasian civilization. It differs from both the West and the East - it is a special world - Eurasia. Russian nationality is a combination of the Turkic, Finno-Ugric and Slavic ethnic groups. The ideas of Eurasianism were very close to N.A. Berdyaev, “the Russian people are not a West European people, they are mostly an East Asian people.” Eurasians attach exceptional importance to Russian culture, in which the Orthodox idea plays a decisive role. Russia is a closed continent that can exist in isolation and has a special mentality, a special spirituality.

Control questions :

1. What is the subject of study of historical science?

2. What are the modern theories of the history of human society?

3. Name the largest representatives of Russian historical science.

4.What are the features geographic location Russia?

5. What influence did the peculiarities of Russia's geopolitical position have on the state mechanism?

6. What types of civilizations do you know and to which of them can Russia be attributed?