Younger school age is the pinnacle of childhood. A child retains many childish qualities - frivolity, naivety, a bottom-up look at an adult. But he is already beginning to lose his childish spontaneity in behavior, he has a different logic of thinking. The leading activity of children of primary school age is educational activity. Learning for a child is a meaningful activity. At school, he acquires not only new knowledge and skills, but also a certain social status. The interests, values ​​of the child, the whole way of life are changing ...

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INTRODUCTION. …………………………………………………… ..… .... ……… ..3

memory in junior school age

1.1. The problem of memory in psychological and pedagogical literature …………… .5

1.2. Basic theories of memory ... ... ... ............................................ .......................14

1.3. Features of the development and formation of memory in children of primary school age in the learning process ……….… ................................. .......nineteen

Conclusions ………………………………………………………………… ........... 26

memory in primary school age

2.1. Organization and methods of research a …………………………… ... …… 28

2.2. Research results and their analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 30 30

Conclusions ………………………………………………………………………… .35

CONCLUSION ……………… .. …………………………. ………… .. …… ..… 36

REFERENCES ……………………………. …………… ...… ......... 38

APPENDIX …………………………………………………………… .40

INTRODUCTION

Younger school age is the pinnacle of childhood. A child retains many childish qualities - frivolity, naivety, a bottom-up look at an adult. But he is already beginning to lose his childish spontaneity in behavior, he has a different logic of thinking. The leading activity of children of primary school age is educational activity. Learning for a child is a meaningful activity. At school, he acquires not only new knowledge and skills, but also a certain social status. The interests, values ​​of the child, the whole way of his life are changing.

The relevance of the work.Today there is a problem of memory development junior schoolchildren since memory is the most important defining characteristic of a person's mental life. No actual action is mentally outside the memory process, for the flow of any, even the most elementary, mental act of the obligatory presupposes the retention of each given element of it for "cohesion" with subsequent ones.

Memory is one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which determines the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult.

The development of memory is influenced by other processes and personality traits: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the effectiveness of the memory of a developing child. [ 8 ]

Object of study:memory of children of primary school age.

Subject of study:peculiarities of memory development in younger schoolchildren.

Objective: to reveal the characteristic features of memory development in children of primary school age.

Work tasks:

1. To study the problem of memory in the psychological and pedagogical literature.

2. Analyze the main theories of memory.

3. Consider the features of the development and formation of memory in primary school children in the learning process.

4. Conduct a pilot study memory of children primary school age.

Research hypothesis: we assume that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of education and training. The memory indices of younger schoolchildren studying in grades with in-depth study are higher than the memory indices of younger schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education.

Research methods:analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, observation, experiment, statistical method.

Theoretical base of the research:the work of B.G. Ananyeva, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, P.I. Zinchenko, A.N. Leontyev, A.R. Luria, S.L. Rubinstein, N.A. Rybnikova, A.A. Smirnova, B.M. Teplova, etc.

Empirical research base:this study was carried out in secondary school No. 57 of Moscow ... The study sample was 20 junior schoolchildren aged 9-10 years.

Work structure. Course work consists of a table of contents, an introduction, two chapters, conclusions for each chapter, a conclusion and a list of used literature.

1. Theoretical basis researchmemory in primary school age

1.1. The problem of memory in psychological and pedagogical literature

Memory - one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which depends on the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult.

At the same time, other processes and personality traits affect the development of memory: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the memory efficiency of a developing child (B.G. Ananiev, P.P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, L. V. Zankov, P. I. Zinchenko, A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria, S. L. Rubinstein, N. A. Rybnikov, A. A. Smirnov, B.M. Teplov and their students).

Domestic psychologists in different years received interesting factual material on the development of meaningful memorization in children, as well as on teaching them certain complex techniques (semantic correlation, classification, semantic grouping of a coherent text, visual modeling), which in one way or another contributes to an increase in memory productivity.

All psychologists emphasize the active principle in the processes of memory of children, the leading role of semantic processing of information:

Memory can be controlled already at a relatively early stage of ontogenesis;

Memory can be developed depending on the use of certain means.

However, the features of the development of the imagination of children of different ages in the process of the formation of cultural memory, as shown by the analysis of domestic and foreign studies, have not yet been the subject of a special study.

In works with children on the development of memory, perception and retelling literary texts experts recommend using such a special methodological technique as posing individual questions or a group of questions in the form of a plan, which, first of all, activates the mental and mnemonic activity of schoolchildren (A.M.Borodich, R.I. Gabova, L.R. Golubeva, A.P. Ivanenko, N.A. Orlanova, F.A.Sokhin, L.P. Fedorenko and others).

Experts have proven that drawing up a plan, or semantic grouping, is one of the effective techniques that provide a high degree of comprehension of a coherent text.[ 11 ]

Two books by M.S. Rogovin: the first was published in 1966 by the publishing house “ graduate School" entitled " Philosophical problems theory of memory ", the second (significantly revised version of the first) - in 1976 in the same publishing house under the title" Problems of the theory of memory. "

As noted by M.S. Rogovin, for a superficial glance, memory is something simple and understandable. It is assumed that any impression leaves behind some trace, which persists for a more or less long time. This is the essence of memory.

At the physiological level, this process is interpreted as a certain change in the work of nerve cells under the influence of previous stimuli. A similar look M.S. Rogovin refers to the thesis of the naturalness (self-evidence) of memory. But by itself understandable on closer examination turns out to be something incomprehensible. And all further analysis convincingly confirms the validity of this statement.

The first fundamental conclusion following from the scientific analysis of the essence of memory is that we are dealing with a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It turns out that memory should be understood not as a single ability to preserve and reproduce previous impressions, but as a set of mechanisms of various kinds. For instance, individual differences in this area, they concern not only the speed and strength of memorization, but also the comparative ease of perception and retention of a certain material, as well as the preferences given to one or another method of memorization. The same is evidenced by the manifold manifestations of memory impairment - amnesia. Hence follows the fundamental possibility of dismembering this complex phenomenon on a variety of grounds.

Distinguish between motor and sensory memory, figurative and verbal, mechanical and logical. If we consider memory as a process, then we can single out the individual aspects of this process - fixation, preservation, forgetting, reproduction. Memorization itself can be involuntary or voluntary, short-term or long-term. Reproduction can be direct (direct) or indirect (mediated by associations). In turn, direct reproduction can be the result of repeated perception (recognition) or arise spontaneously (reminiscence). Thus, memory turns out to be a mental function, very complex in its structure. In addition, it is intimately connected with other cognitive processes (perception, attention, thinking, speech) and with the general mental organization and orientation of the personality.

An essential aspect of studying the problem of memory is the study of those brain mechanisms that ensure the retention of past impressions. For XX century, many studies of this kind have been carried out both in animals and in humans. They show that, firstly, there is no brain "memory center". Violations of this function are observed when various brain structures are affected, but the vastness of the lesion is more significant than its specific localization. Facts of this kind are in good agreement with the psychologists' conclusion that memory is not a separate ability; it is closely related to other aspects of cognitive activity.

Secondly, it has been proved that with the help of electrical stimulation of certain parts of the cerebral cortex (temporal lobes of the dominant hemisphere), it is possible to artificially evoke visual and auditory images of the past, which W. Penfield called "flashes of the past."

Modern neurophysiology has put forward interesting hypotheses regarding possible mechanisms for fixing memory traces. However, until now, not a single particular question about the "traces" of memory - their localization, structure, strength, methods of actualization, etc. - there are no uniform and firmly grounded ideas. Despite the extremely subtle research carried out, in this area there is still much more unknown and incomprehensible than unambiguously proven. Having stated that modern neurophysiology, reporting some interesting facts about the functioning of the brain mechanisms for processing information about the external world, does not bring us too close to understanding the essence of memory as a cognitive process, M.S. Rogovin returns to the psychological aspect of the problem. Here he highlights analytical and synthetic approaches. The first is an attempt to highlight the main elements of memory, and the second is aimed at determining the place of this cognitive process in the general structure of a person's mental life.

The old psychology called associations as the basic elements of memory, i.e. connections between separate views. Indeed, our memory is largely built on connections. The laws of association were first deduced by Aristotle, who saw their reason in the existence of similarities and differences in objects and grouped them according to the prevailing sensory modality. Later, to external associations (by similarity and contrast, as well as by coincidence in time and space), internal associations were added (by generic relations and causal relationships). Associations of the first type form the basis of sensory memory, associations of the second type - the basis of the memory of ideas. [ 4 ]

Associationism that is down to XIX century was the main direction of philosophical psychology, and largely determined the development of modern experimental psychology. The pioneer of the experimental study of memory, G. Ebbinghaus, used the principle of associations to explain the speed of memorizing and forgetting what was learned. The same principle formed the basis of the explanatory schemes that were used by behaviorists (connections of the "stimulus-response" type) and physiologists of the school of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlova (conditioned reflex). Although associationism as a universal concept was later mercilessly criticized by representatives of other directions, for example, Gestalt psychology, the prominent role of associations in the organization of the human psyche is beyond doubt. Behind the usual forms of behavior, behind the acts of speech formalized according to the laws of language and logic, special scientific analysis reveals a powerful layer of associations - mental formations that serve as raw material and a dynamic background for them.

If associations represent those elementary structures that form the "foundation" of memory, then it itself is included in general structure psyche, which is usually denoted by the concept of "personality". The synthetic approach draws attention to the second aspect, which is no less important for understanding the nature of human memory than the study of the process of forming associations. For example, W. Wundt believed that associations as such are directed by apperception, i.e. an act of will, which puts them in a certain relationship to each other. Representatives of the Würzburg school noted the importance of such intentional moments as "intention", "concentration", "motive" for the organization of associative processes. Gestaltists pointed out the role of structuring material for its successful memorization.

In the same vein, the concept of F. Bartlett took shape, for whom the memory of an adult is the result of the joint work of the senses, constructive imagination and constructive thought. Each memory is included in a broader scheme, due to which it ceases to be a simple copy of the initial impression, but necessarily includes an element of generalization based on past experience.

Memories are not so much a reproduction as a reconstruction of the past. Figuratively speaking, Bartlett "throws a bridge" from memory to imagination. The difference here, in his opinion, consists only in the degree of transformation of the source material.

Another point that was outlined in Bartlett's concept, but was developed in more detail in the works of French (P. Janet, L. Levy-Bruhl, M. Halbwachs) and domestic (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, A. N. Leontyev) psychologists, this is an indication of the role social factors in the process of memorization.

On closer analysis, the development of a person's memory turns out to be closely connected with the emergence of abstract-logical thinking and with the use of special mnemonic means (artificial signs). Sign systems (in particular, writing) act as a means of mastering their own behavior, which is a turning point in the history of the spiritual development of mankind.

In addition, social life sets some framework (coordinate system), within which only the counting of events in the life of each individual is possible. Therefore, any memory of a particular event contains, in addition to an image localized in a certain place and time, those general views that reflect our personal experience or the experience of our immediate social environment.

This is the essence and specificity of human memory. According to P. Janet's correct remark, only with the use of language does real memory arise, because only then does the possibility of description appear, that is, the transformation of the absent into the present.

A systematic consideration of various views on the nature and mechanisms of memory is given by M.S. Rogovin to the formulation of the principles of a structural-level concept designed to integrate diverse facts related to the functioning of this complex cognitive complex.

This entire structure is the result of a long phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, during which historically newer formations are, as it were, built on top of older ones, including them in themselves and qualitatively rebuilding them.

For example, voluntary memorization necessarily presupposes a special organization of one's own activity (division of material, distribution of repetitions), aimed at memorizing some content with the aim of its subsequent reproduction. In this sense, it differs significantly from involuntary memorization, which is a kind of by-product of any activity.

Voluntary memorization does not at all cancel the involuntary, but only organizes and directs it in a special way. Verbal-logical memory, in comparison with figurative memory, turns out to be a more effective (in terms of subsequent preservation) method of encoding information, initially given in a visual form. Language and other sign systems in this sense can be considered as ready-made means (tools) of memorization.

The structural-level concept of the psyche itself is not an invention of M.S. Rogovin. Its foundations were laid by an outstanding English neurologist X ... Jackson and his student G. Head.

Developing the evolutionary ideas of Charles Darwin and H. Spencer, Jackson considered the functions of the central nervous system as a result of gradual complication, rise to a higher level. In the case of pathology, a reverse process occurs, which Jackson calls dissociation. Jackson's theory at one time found a wide response in French psychology. Its influence is especially noticeable in the works of T. Ribot and P. Janet.

In particular, Ribot formulates the so-called law of the reverse development of this function in his famous book "Memory in its normal and diseased state", according to which genetically later formations - verbal-logical memory and the ability of voluntary memorization and recall - are the first to suffer. Impressions of the distant past and motor skills (memory-habit) are quite stable in this respect.

This applies to everything historical development human cognition, and to the individual development of memory in childhood. At the lower levels of functioning, memorization is carried out under the influence of external factors and relies on the natural ability of every living organism to record biologically significant or often repeated impressions.

At the level of voluntary and conscious regulation of activity, memorization takes the form of purposeful memorization. In this case, inner speech becomes the main tool for organizing one's own behavior. So, it is the structural-level concept that seems to be the most adequate for revealing the nature of memory.[ 6 ]

1.2. Basic memory theories

retrospectively,

In modern studies, memory is acquiring an ever greater ontological status and is already associated, first of all, with relevant systemic processes, which by themselves may not look like memory in our usual sense.

Memory is increasingly seen asactual and continuous processes of self-reproduction and self-broadcasting of systems,because outside of these processes, memory does not exist, as well as these processes themselves, due to the dynamic and information-conditioned nature of biological and social systems.

Strong relationship sign systems and memory has been neglected for a long time, but their joint study within the framework of interdisciplinary research also showed the insufficiency of the widespread "autonomous" approaches to the study of signs and sign systems. Like memory, various types of sign systems are mainly viewed "statically" as objective means of replacing some autonomous objective or semantic content relatively independent of the activities of subjects. Biological and social systems preserve and translate themselves through their actual functioning, through “living semiosis” that determines and is conditioned by memory. In this regard, these processes must be considered both as determined by memory and sign systems, and as determining and implementing them in such a way that the sign, information and actual system processes become distinguishable only conditionally. [ 1 ]

Systemic studies of memory and awareness of the need to create a general theory of memory were induced not only by its biological research, but also by the "boom" in the study of social (cultural, collective, historical) memory, which occurred and continues to occur in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Work in the field of social memory has shown that its simple understanding as a material imprint (s) or a system of material carriers of information relating to the past is not enough. Social memory must be considered as a process both from the side of its creation, and from the side of its translation, reproduction and actual functioning in the form of the social system itself.

The study of social memory is mainly carried out independently of biological research but in last years everything appears more work which combine biological and social concepts of memory into one, usually evolutionary theory.

On the the present stage the theory and methodology of interdisciplinary memory research is still under active development. In the process of solving this problem, it is necessary to avoid various forms of reductionism, including the consideration of biological and social systems as systems based only on memory.

At the same time, the working concept of "memory" allows us to identify new aspects of the study of complex systems, therefore, as a preliminary result, it is necessary to emphasize the following:

1. The objects of systemic and interdisciplinary research of memory can be considered at least two systems of inheritance: biological and social. These systems must be studied not only as conditions that ensure the reproduction and adaptation of biological and social systems to environment based past experience, but also how their bases and formsactual existence.

2. The examined studies of the nature of memory and its evolution show that memory, being a systemic process, exists both at the individual and supra-individual levels.

3. Often in research information, sign systems and actual processes are considered as autonomous (hypostatized) realities, as, for example, in the statement “knowledge is transmitted by tradition ...” or “language contains information ...”.

Association is understood as a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. E. Müller built a kind of hierarchical system in which categorical representations were under the control of some more high level making decisions about inhibition or activation of associative links. E. Müller's student A. Yost later described two general laws of the dynamics of the strength of a memory trace. According to the first of them, “of two associations of equal strength, but different ages the older one is forgotten more slowly. The second law has to do with memorization: the increment in track strength caused by new memorization is inversely proportional to the original track strength. " [ 10 ]

Another associative memory model was proposed by J. Anderson and G. Bower. Their theory is analyzed in the monograph by E.I. Goroshko "An integrative model of a free associative experiment."

J. Anderson and G. Bower believe that words can be mutually associated only if the concepts corresponding to them are included in the propositions encoded in memory. At the same time, a person's long-term memory is a huge network of intersecting propositional trees, each of which includes a certain set of memory nodes with labeled connections.

In his study "On Memory", conducting experiments on memorizing rows of meaningless syllables, he deduced a general rule for the emergence and decay of associations: will cause representations of the rest of the members, even if their original reasons were absent.

This is due to two reasons: 1) in any mental phenomenon of a waking person there is nothing that would be fully and completely conscious, since there is always something unconscious in him; at the same time, there is never even a completely unconscious in him, since at least some moments are always partially realized; 2) up to the present time, components have not yet been identified in mental phenomena, about which one could confidently say that this component is associated only with consciousness, but this one is only with the unconscious. These reasons do not allow separate study of consciousness and unconsciousness.[ 14 ]

1.3. Features of the development and formation of children's memory

primary school age in the learning process

From the moment a child enters school, it begins to mediate the entire system of his relations, and one of its paradoxes is as follows: being social in meaning, content and form, this system, at the same time, is carried out purely individually, and its products are products of individual assimilation. In progress learning activities the child masters the knowledge and skills developed by humanity. The main direction in this period of a child's life is educational activity, and its success largely depends on the level of development. different types memory of children.

Under the influence of teaching, younger schoolchildren undergo a restructuring of all their cognitive processes and the acquisition of new qualities by them. Children are involved in new types of activities and systems of interpersonal relations, requiring them to have new psychological qualities. From the first days of training, a child needs to maintain increased attention for a long time, be quite persevering, perceive and remember well everything that the teacher says. [ 9 ]

The main neoplasm of primary school age is abstract verbal-logical and reasoning thinking, the emergence of which significantly rearranges others cognitive processes children; so, memory at this age becomes thinking, and perception - thinking. Thanks to such thinking, memory and perception, children are subsequently able to successfully master truly scientific concepts and operate with them.

Exploring involuntary memorization, P.I. Zinchenko found that the productivity of involuntary memorization increases if the task offered to the child presupposes not just passive perception, but active orientation in the material, performance mental operations... In addition to involuntary memorization, an important neoplasm appears in the child's psyche - children master their own mnemonic activity, they develop voluntary memory.

Increasing voluntary memory in children can be achieved through targeted memorization using special techniques, the effectiveness depends on:

• From the goals of memorization (how firmly, for how long a person wants to remember). If the goal is to learn in order to pass the exam, then soon after the exam, a lot will be forgotten, if the goal is to learn for a long time, for the future professional activity, then the information is little forgotten;
• From memorization techniques. Memorization techniques are:

Mechanical literal multiple repetition - mechanical memory works, a lot of effort and time is wasted, and the results are low. Mechanical memory is memory based on repeating material without comprehending it;

Logical retelling, which includes logical comprehension of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words - logical memory (semantic) works - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material. The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher, better than mechanical memory;

Figurative methods of memorization (translation of information into images, graphics, diagrams, pictures) - figurative memory works. Figurative memory is of different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory, tactile, olfactory, emotional;

Mnemonic memorization techniques (special techniques to facilitate memorization). [ 13 ]

In studies of the memory of children 3-7 years old, Z.M. Istomina identified three mnemonic levels of her development:

• the first level is characterized by the absence of isolating the purpose of memorization or recall;
• the second - the presence of this goal, but without the use of any methods aimed at its implementation,
• the third is the presence of a goal to remember or recall and the use of mnemonic methods to accomplish this.

Students in the initial period of study have a second and, to a greater extent, the third level of memory development, while they can quite well single out a mnemonic goal.

This happens when the child is faced with conditions that require him to actively memorize and recall. Memorization should be motivated by something, and the mnemonic activity itself should lead to the achievement of a result that is meaningful for the child.

There is a dependence of the isolation of the mnemonic goal on the nature of the activity performed by the child. It turned out that the most favorable conditions for the realization of the mnemonic goal and the formation of memorization and recall arise in such life circumstances in which the child must fulfill the instructions of the adult in the play activity.

The main indicator of the development of a child's arbitrary memory is not only his ability to accept or independently set himself a mnemonic task, but also to control its implementation, i.e. exercise self-control. In this case, the essence of self-control is the ability of a person to correlate, compare the result obtained in the process of performing any activity with a given sample in order to correct errors in a timely manner and their further prevention.

Younger schoolchildren have the following levels of self-control of children, depending on the completeness of self-report:

The first level is characterized by the fact that they could not exercise self-control at all;

The second level is characterized by the fact that, during the second viewing of the pictures, they gave a report only on some elements of the series, reproduced for the first time;

The third level of self-control development is characterized by the simultaneous fulfillment of self-report and mnemonic tasks. [ 7 ]

In general, the possibilities of self-control in the process of memorization in primary school age significantly increase, and most children of this age successfully use self-control both when memorizing visual and verbal material.

Self-control, being part of educational activity, acting in a visual-effective form, stimulates the mastery of children with a logical method of memorization and mnemonic activity. Forming this ability in the process of mnemonic activity, the teacher helps the child to develop not only memory, but also the arbitrariness of behavior in general.

Self-regulation of behavior is especially difficult for children of 6-7 years of age starting to study at school. The child should sit still during the lesson, not talking, not walking around the classroom, not running around the school during recess. In other situations, on the contrary, he is required to display unusual, rather complex and subtle motor activity, such as, for example, when learning to draw and write.

It is believed that a child who has crossed the threshold of school for the first time is characterized by mechanical memory, the ability to memorize only by association. At the same time, they refer to the amazing ability of the child to meaninglessly reproduce any obscure text. Indeed, rote memorization is highly developed in children of this age. However, children younger age not only mechanical memorization is available, but also logical elements. This type of memory is usually manifested when memorizing content that children understand.

Conducted by A.A. Smirnov comparative studies memory in children of primary and secondary school age led to the following conclusions:

From 6 to 14 years old, children actively develop mechanical memory for not logically connected units of information;

Contrary to the popular belief that there is an increase with age advantage of memorizing meaningful material, in fact, the opposite relationship is found: the older the younger student becomes, the less advantages he has of memorizing meaningful material over meaningless one. This is probably due to the fact that the exercise of memory under the influence of intensive learning, based on memorization, leads to a simultaneous improvement in all types of memory in the child, and above all those that are relatively simple and not associated with complex mental work. [ 13 ]

The memory of children of primary school age is quite good, and this primarily concerns mechanical memory, which progresses rather quickly during the first three to four years of schooling. Mediated, logical memory lags somewhat behind in its development, since in most cases the child, being busy with learning, work, play and communication, completely dispenses with mechanical memory.

A six-year-old child often replaces unfamiliar words with more familiar ones, arbitrarily change the sequence of events in a fairy tale, without violating the main logic of presentation, they can omit details or add something of their own. This arbitrariness largely depends on his attitude towards the heroes of the work. At positive attitude much of the "bad" associated with the hero is forgotten by them, but details are introduced that reinforce the positive aspects. The opposite picture is observed with a negative attitude towards the hero.

Learning plays the main role in the development of logical memory in children. The indicators of children who were trained in the methods of organizing logical connections, the results are 1.5 times higher than in children where these mnemonic methods were not taught.

During special education children may well master such techniques of logical memorization as semantic correlation and semantic grouping, and use them successfully for cosmic purposes.

It is advisable to carry out such training in two stages: the first is the formation of semantic correlation and semantic grouping as mental actions, and the second is the ability to apply these actions in the course of mnemonic activity.

When teaching the mnemonic action of classification, success is achieved if its formation is carried out in accordance with the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions by P.Ya. Halperin:

1. Stage of practical action. Here children use material and practical actions - they learn to put pictures into groups.

2. Stage of speech action. After a preliminary acquaintance with the pictures, the child should tell which of them can be attributed to one or another group.

3. Stage of mental action. At this stage, the distribution of pictures into groups is carried out by the child in his mind, then he names the groups.

When children have already learned to single out certain groups in the presented material (for example, animals, dishes, clothes, etc.), assign each picture to a certain group or generalizing picture, select individual elements, then they move on to forming the ability to use grouping for memorization purposes. [ 15 ]

Thus, a teacher working with children must take into account the possibilities of various types of memory of their pupils and develop them. Accordingly, the teacher must know the methods of developing various types of memory in younger students and apply them individually, depending on the level of their formation in the child.

Conclusions on the 1st chapter

1. Memory - one of the most important mental cognitive functions, the level of development of which depends on the productivity of assimilation of various information, both by a child and an adult. At the same time, other processes and personality traits affect the development of memory: motivation and emotions, will and sociability, interests, self-control and especially thinking, which is extremely important for the memory efficiency of a developing child.

In the works of domestic researchers, it was shown that the development of a person's memory goes from direct memorization to mediated memorization, based on the use of auxiliary means (mainly language).

2. In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the number of scientific works dedicated to the general theory of memory. The systemic unity and conventionality of distinguishing memory, information and sign systems became obvious, which determined new requirements for their study.

The emergence and development of ideas of the general theory of memory only in recent years is due to the fact that for a long time memory was understood mainly psychologically or historically and was considered only retrospectively, as a kind of "imprint", "trace" of the past, or as a set of sign systems that store information about past events in the present.

For the first time, ideas regarding the preservation, reproduction and forgetting of information were tested in the associative theory of memory. The key principle in explaining the dynamics of memory processes has become the principle of association.

In accordance with the associative theory, forgetting the studied material is explained by the disintegration of associations. The most significant contribution to the study of forgetting within the framework of the associative theory was made by G. Ebbinghaus.

Isolation of the unconscious in the psyche began since the time of Leibniz, and the beginning of quantitative registration of human reactions to unconscious stimuli, which is the basis scientific research unconscious, associated with the works of Gershuni and his collaborators.

There is still no scientifically provenanswers to the questions: what is the unconscious, is there an unconscious memory, what properties of objects it is formed for, how and where it is formed and functioning, how it differs from conscious memory.

3. The work of many researchers (Galperin P.Ya., Kolominsky Ya.P., Nemov ES, Panko E.A., Smirnov A.A., Stolyarenko L.D., etc.) are devoted to the development of memory in younger schoolchildren. formation in theoretical and applied aspects.

In a child of primary school age (6-7 years old), an involuntary type of memory prevails, in which there is no consciously set goal. During this period, the dependence of memorizing the material on such features as emotional attractiveness, brightness, sounding, discontinuity of action, movement, contrast, etc., remains. the essential role of the word.

In addition to involuntary memorization, an important neoplasm appears in the child's psyche - children master their own mnemonic activity, they develop voluntary memory.

2. Experimental study memory in primary school age

2.1. Organization and research methods

The experimental base becameSchool No. 57 of the city of Moscow.The study involved 10 junior schoolchildren from the class With in-depth study of the Russian language and literature (first group) and 10 junior schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education (second group).

The goal and the tasks set determined the course of the study, which was carried out in several stages:

The first stage is a theoretical analysis of the literature on the topic under study.

Second phase - preparatory stage... At this stage, the formation of the sample and the selection of diagnostic tools were carried out in order to study memory in primary schoolchildren.

The third stage is experimental. This stage provided for an experimental study of students of the first and second groups using the methods of 10 words, "Memory for images", "Semantic memory".

The fourth stage is analytical. It is connected with the analysis and processing of the results obtained.

For the study of memory, the method "Memory for images" was used,intended for the study of figurative memory (Appendix). The essence of the technique lies in the fact that the subject is exposed to a table with 16 images for 20 seconds. The images must be memorized and reproduced on the form within 1 minute. The child needs to draw or write down (express verbally) those images that they have memorized.Testing results are assessed by the number of correct image reproduction. The technique is used in a group and individually. The norm is 6 correct answers or more.

Also, the “10 words” technique was used to diagnose memory. It is used to diagnose short-term verbal memory. Children were read 10 words with an interval of 4-5 seconds between words. After a ten-second break, students write down the words that they remember. Evaluation of the results was carried out according to the formula: C = a / 10, where C is memory, and is the number of correctly reproduced words. For children 8 - 9 years old, the standard indicator is 6 words.

And also for diagnostics of memory the method "Semantic memory", based on understanding (Appendix), was used. In the process of semantic memorization, mnemonic supports are created. The connections used for memorization are not independent, but auxiliary, they serve as a means of helping to remember something. The most effective will be mnemonic supports that reflect the main thoughts of any material. Diagnostics takes place in 2 stages. At stage 1, pairs of words with a semantic connection are read out. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the subjects write down the second. If the second word is spelled correctly, then put "+", and incorrectly "-". At stage 2, pairs of words are read that have no semantic connection.

The results are processed as follows:

Thus, the norm of logical memory for children 8-9 years old is 10 words out of 15, and mechanical memory - 7 words out of 15.

2.2. Research results and their analysis

The results of the study of memory in younger schoolchildren are presented in the tables.

Table 1

Indicators of short-term verbal memory according to the "10 words" method in primary schoolchildren of the first and second groups.

Note:

p<0,01

p<0,05

Rice. one. Average indices of verbal short-term memory according to the “10 words” method in primary schoolchildren of the first and second groups.

According to the data given in Table 1, the average indicators of short-term verbal memory according to the “10 words” method among schoolchildren of the second group are lower than those of schoolchildren of the first group.

table 2

Average indicators of figurative memory according to the method "Memory for images" among schoolchildren in the experimental and control groups.

Note:

* significant differences are noted for p<0,01

** significant differences are noted at p<0,05

Rice. 2. Average indicators of figurative memory according to the method "Memory for images" among schoolchildren of the first and second groups.

According to the data given in table 2, the average indicators of figurative memory according to the method "Memory for images" among schoolchildren of the second group are lower than those of schoolchildren of the first group.

Table 3

Average indicators of semantic memory according to the “Semantic memory” method among schoolchildren of the first and second groups (stage 1).

Note:

* significant differences are noted for p<0,01

** significant differences are noted at p<0,05

Rice. 3.

According to the data given in Table 3, the average indicators of logical memory according to the method "Semantic memory" among schoolchildren of the second group are lower than those of schoolchildren of the first group.

Table 4

Average indicators of semantic memory according to the “Semantic memory” method among schoolchildren in the experimental and control groups (stage 2).

Note:

* significant differences are noted for p<0,01

** significant differences are noted at p<0,05

Rice. 4. Average indicators of semantic memory according to the “Semantic memory” method among schoolchildren of the first and second groups.

According to the data given in Table 4, the average indicators of mechanical memory according to the "Semantic memory" method in schoolchildren of the second group (traditional form of education) are lower than those of schoolchildren in the first group (a class with in-depth study of the Russian language and literature), which is proof of the hypothesis put forward and confirms her.

Conclusions on the 2nd chapter

Thus, the hypothesis put forward that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of education and training was confirmed.

The memory indices of younger schoolchildren studying in a class with in-depth study of the Russian language and literature are higher than the memory indices of younger schoolchildren studying in the traditional form of education.

Memory, being the basis of the entire learning process, is formed and changed throughout a person's life. Under favorable social conditions, the memory of mentally healthy children has a positive trend.

This study involved children without mental retardation. But the children of the second group (the traditional form of education) have significantly lower memory indicators.

This indicates that the development of memory is directly related to the conditions of education and training.

The social and mental conditions for raising children are associated with the development of cognitive functions.

To increase memory indicators in children, it is necessary to regularly conduct correctional and developmental classes.

CONCLUSION

Memory is the basis for the successful educational and work activity of every person. To actively use memory, it is necessary to teach the child to control the mechanisms and processes of memory.

In the process of learning, the child himself learns to use his memory, but corrective and developmental activities can improve certain types and mechanisms of memory that are necessary in everyday life.

In the process of the general development of the child, memory activity becomes more and more controllable.

With the development of voluntary memory, the possibilities of the independent various activities of the child expand and his more and more active inclusion in various types of communication with adults and peers.

The activity of memory and imagination changes depending on those motives that induce the child to make an effort: memorizing and recalling the perceived material, creating a new drawing, writing or retelling.[ 3 ]

Imitative and involuntary activity turns into creative activity, which the child learns to control, subordinating it to the accepted task.

Speaking about children's memory, we can say that with the development of the child, memory acquires a selective character, i.e. the child better and for a longer period remembers what he is interested in, and uses this material in his activities.

Memory is characterized by its plasticity and constant development. Psychologists say that a child's memory is better than that of an adult.

Practice shows that although children memorize material easily, they reproduce it randomly, since they are not yet able to extract the necessary information under certain conditions. But with age, the child learns to use his memory and even use various techniques for memorization.[ 9 ]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aseev V.G. Age psychology. - M .: Publishing house Academy, 1994 .-- 320 p.
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3. Vygotsky L.S. Memory and its development in childhood. - M .: Vlados, 1999 .-- 234 p.
4. Gamezo M.V. Age and educational psychology / M.V. Gameso, E.A. Petrov. - M .: Publishing house Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2004. - 512 p.
5. Children's practical psychology. / Ed. Bogdana N. N. -Vladivostok: VSUES Publishing House, 2003. - 116 p.
6. Zenkovsky V.V. Childhood psychology. - Yekaterinburg: Business Book Publishing House, 1995, - 346 p.
7. Krysko V.G. Psychology and pedagogy. - M .: Vlados, 2001 .-- 378 p.
8. Mukhina V.S. Development psychology: phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence. - M .: Publishing house Academy, 2000 .-- 456 p.
9. Nikitina T.B. How to develop a good memory. - M .: AST-PRESS, 2006 .-- 320 p.
10. Obukhova L. Children's psychology: Theories, facts, problems. - M .: Publishing house Academy, 1995 .-- 360 p.
11. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - SPb .: Publishing house Peter, 2002.-720 p.
12. Smirnov A.A. Age and individual differences in memory. - M .: APN, 1999 .-- 221 p.
13. Smirnova E.O. Child psychology: From birth to seven years. - M .: School - press, 1997 .-- 383 p.
14. Stolyarenko L. D. Fundamentals of Psychology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix Publishing House, 1997 .-- 736 p.
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Appendix

Memory for images technique.

Instructions: " You will be presented with a table with images. Your task is to make 20 seconds. memorize as many images as possible. After 20 sec. they will remove the table, and you must draw or write down (express verbally) those images that you have memorized. "
Evaluation of test results is carried out by the number of correct reproduction of images. The norm is 6 or more.

Stimulus material:

Methodology "Semantic memory"

Stage one.

Instructions: “Guys, now I'm going to read you a couple of words, your task is to try to remember them. Listen very carefully. After I finish reading the pairs of words, I will read only the first word a second time, and you need to remember and write down the second word. "

The psychologist reads out a couple of words to memorize. Children try to remember them in pairs. Then the experimenter reads only the first word of each pair, and the children try to remember and write down the second. Read the words slowly.

Doll-play

Chicken egg

Scissors-cut

Horse-hay

Book-teach

Baochka-fly

Brush teeth

Drum pioneer

Snow winter

Rooster-screaming

Tead ink

Cow milk

Steam locomotive = go

Pear compote

Lamp evening.

Second phase.

Instructions: " Guys, now I will read you 10 more pairs of words again, try to remember the second word of each pair in the same way. Be careful!"

In the same way as in the first case, pairs of words are read slowly, and then only the first word of each pair.

Beetle chair

Feather-water

Glasses-error

Bell-memory

Father dove

Lake tram

Comb-wind

Boiler boots

Mother castle

Match-sheep

Grater-sea

Skid factory

Fire fish

Poplar-jelly.

After the experiment, the number of memorized words for each series is compared, and the subjects answer the questions: “Why did you remember the words from the second experiment worse? Have you tried to establish a connection between words? "

The founder behaviorism is the American scientist John Brodes Watson (1878-1958), who openly proclaimed the need to replace the traditional subject of psychology (mental phenomena) with a new one (behavior), declaring mental phenomena as fundamentally unknowable natural scientific methods.
Watson believed that the ultimate goal of the science of behavior is to understand and explain it, and not the mental phenomena that the science of behavior can do without. To achieve this goal, it is quite sufficient to fulfill three conditions: to accurately describe the behavior itself, to find out the physical stimuli on which it depends, and to establish the connections that exist between stimuli and behavior. The scientific search for behaviorists was mainly aimed at elucidating the corresponding connections in order to explain behavior as a response to stimuli on their basis.
From the point of view of the behaviorist (of that time), the behavior of an animal and a person is fundamentally the same. Therefore, it is quite permissible, while studying the behavior of animals, to directly transfer the results of relevant studies to humans and, conversely, to "humanly" interpret the types and forms of animal behavior. It was argued that a person differs from an animal only in the greater complexity of his behavioral reactions and a wide variety of stimuli to which he is able to respond.
Watson, however, could not completely deny either the presence or the significance of mental phenomena in human life. He considered them "functions" that play a certain active role in the adaptation of the organism to the conditions of life, but at the same time admitted that he could not precisely define this role. Watson denied the fundamental possibility of a scientific study of human consciousness. Since in the objective study of human behavior by methods borrowed from the natural sciences, the behaviorist "does not observe anything that he could call consciousness, feeling, sensation, imagination, will, so he no longer believes that these terms indicate the true phenomena of psychology." ...
The desire to objectify the science of behavior was certainly a positive thing compared to the science of the soul, divorced from real life problems. However, it was impossible to completely abandon the study of mental phenomena, given their actual significance in human life and behavior. Therefore, quite soon the orthodox views of the founder of the behaviorist doctrine were softened by his followers, who at the same time tried to bring the science of behavior closer to reality, to reconcile it with the established philosophical understanding of a person, in whose life mental phenomena play a noticeable positive role. That was done non-behaviorists in the 30s of the XX century, and the most famous of them were Edward Chase Tolman (1886-1959) and Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952).
Having perceived the basic behavioral ideas, including the natural-scientific behavioral orientation of research and the desire to make psychology an objective, practically useful science, Tolman abandoned the understanding of behavior only as a system of responses to stimuli and introduced the concept of immanent activity (not reactivity) of the organism, about purposefulness, rationality and expediency of behavior. The goal was the organizing and guiding beginning of behavior for Tolman, it began to be understood as the end result that must be achieved as a result of the body's practical implementation of a series of interrelated behavioral acts.
Tolman concluded that the connections between stimuli and behavioral responses are not direct, but mediated. They are changed, modified by the so-called "intermediate variables", among which there are many psychological phenomena proper. The most important of them in humans are as follows: goal, expectation, hypothesis, cognitive map of the world, sign and its meaning. "Behavior," Tolman wrote, "... is purposeful and cognitive. Objectives and cognitive moments constitute its immediate basis and fabric."
The ideas expressed by Tolman were further developed in the works of K. Hull.
Neither behaviorism nor non-behaviorism have investigated what is happening in the mind of a person; therefore, this approach as a whole is sometimes called the approach to a person from the position of a "black box". Psychologists who adhere to this philosophy and methodology believe that science, explaining human behavior, should deal only with what is observable, measurable, enters the body in the form of stimuli and leaves it in the form of reactions to these stimuli. This is the foundation of the Hall's theory of learning, based on a system of physiological postulates and a number of laws linking stimuli and reactions.
The second direction, which declared itself during the crisis of psychology, is Gestalt psychology ... If behaviorism, as one of the ways out of the crisis of psychology, arose and developed in the USA, then this trend originated in Germany and gained recognition in Europe. Gestalt psychology also focused on natural sciences as an example of scientific knowledge, but used the achievements of physics and mathematics more than the physiology of the body.
Representatives of this trend, among whom we can name Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Koehler (1887-1967), Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) and others, most of all were not satisfied with the simplified atomistic approach to the study and analysis of mental phenomena characteristic of associative introspective psychology. Such psychology decomposed all complex phenomena into elementary ones, trying to derive the laws of formation of integral mental structures from their combination according to the associative principle. Mental phenomena, in fact, were reduced to various combinations of the simplest elements according to a limited number of laws.
Gestalt psychologists declared themselves by asserting the existence of their own laws for the formation of complex, integral systems of mental phenomena that cannot be reduced to the elementary laws of the combination of elements. Wertheimer, characterizing the specifics of this approach in psychology, wrote: “The main problem of Gestalt theory could be formulated as follows: there are connections in which what happens as a whole is not derived from elements that supposedly exist in the form of separate pieces, which are then connected together, but on the contrary, what appears in a separate part of this whole is determined by the internal structural law of this whole. " In the research of Gestalt psychologists, the study of complex phenomena by elements and their connections was replaced by an elucidation of the structure of these connections and the laws of its formation. For this reason, this trend in the history of psychology is sometimes called structural psychology (one of the translations of the word "gestalt" into Russian just means "structure"). Many representatives of Gestalt psychology, in addition to psychological, had a basic education in one of the exact sciences, and this influenced their psychological views. V.Kehler, for example, studied physics and used the relevant knowledge to explain the processes of perception and thinking.
The ideas of Gestalt psychology have played a positive role in the development of a number of important problems in psychology. They affected perception, thinking, memory, personality and interpersonal relationships. They also contributed to the application in the field of psychology of useful theories and concepts borrowed from natural science research. They transformed the old introspective psychology, making it more in line with the achievements of the natural sciences. At the same time, Gestalt psychology, like behaviorism, did not solve the main problems that gave rise to the general crisis of psychological science, but only slightly reduced their severity, attracting the attention of researchers to new interesting problems.
The third area that emerged during the crisis was psychoanalysis ... Its foundations were developed by the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Representatives of psychoanalysis, unlike behaviorists and gestalt psychologists, did not focus on the exact and natural sciences as a model for building scientific psychological knowledge. They sought to find a way out of the crisis in psychology itself, forming a closer alliance with other sciences that also deal with mental phenomena, for example, medicine.
Freudianism - and this is his merit - he strove to fill psychological knowledge about a person with new life truth, create a theory and, on its basis, obtain information useful for solving practical, primarily psychotherapeutic problems. It is no coincidence that Freud began his scientific research with the analysis and generalization of psychotherapeutic practice and only then turned the accumulated experience into a psychological theory.
Psychology in psychoanalysis has again found a living person, since ancient times its inherent depth of penetration into the essence of his soul and behavior. However, carried away by his speculative theoretical constructions (most of them, as it turned out later, did not have a statistically reliable factual basis), Freud moved further and further from empirical reality into the field of psychological fantasy, and this led to the rejection of many of his ideas, not only on the part of a number of sane scientists, but also of Freud's own disciples.
For psychoanalysis, the key concepts have become "consciousness" and "unconscious". The latter was assigned a particularly important role in explaining human behavior. Freud wrote that there is strong evidence that subtle and difficult intellectual work, which requires deep and intense thinking, can proceed outside the sphere of consciousness, that there are people "whose self-criticism and conscience ... turn out to be unconscious and, while remaining so, condition the most important actions ". Unconscious, according to Freud, can also be a sense of guilt.
In addition to the three listed attempts to solve the problems that gave rise to the crisis in a scientific way, there were also attempts of a different kind. One of them consisted, for example, in rejecting any explanation of psychological phenomena and calling for their description and understanding at the level of intuition. It was the so-called understanding psychology represented, in particular, by Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911). He believed that atomistic, elementary, based on explanatory methods borrowed from the natural sciences, psychology could not give a holistic understanding of a person as a real, living person. An understanding psychology should take its place.
The main task of understanding psychology is to reveal the semantic content of a person's mental life, the system of his values. "One cannot but wish the emergence of psychology," wrote Dilthey, "capable of capturing in the network of its descriptions what is more in the works of poets and writers than in the current teachings about the soul." The development of mental life in its entirety should become the subject of such psychology. Descriptive psychology must at the same time be analytical, and the analysis must include a living, artistic process of understanding. Understanding psychology sought to obtain and collect information about the elements of consciousness that are necessary and sufficient in order to represent the entire course of individual mental life. Good psychologists, according to Dilthey, are writers, historians, actors, teachers, doctors.
Starting from the 30-40s of the XX century, in the demarcation and differentiation of psychological knowledge, initiated by the period of open crisis of psychological science, important changes began to take place. If the first independent directions of psychological research that arose during two decades of the 20th century - behaviorism, gestalt psychology, Freudianism, and understanding psychology - represented different lines of thought development, almost without intersections and in their postulates are difficult to reconcile with each other, then with 30 -x years, along with the continuation of the process of differentiation of psychological knowledge, the process of their integration begins and gradually gains strength, i.e. combining and using in the created theories, in experiments and in practice, various approaches reflecting the positions of behaviorism, gestalt theory, psychoanalysis and other areas of research. Consider some of the concepts of this kind, characteristic of the psychology of the mid-20th century.
Cognitive psychology ... This direction arose in connection with the development of cybernetics, computer science, mathematical computer programming and, to a certain extent, was a negative reaction to the shortcomings of all psychological concepts that ignore consciousness and belittle the role of thinking in determining human behavior. Here, the main attention was paid to how a person perceives, processes and stores various information about the world and about himself, how he uses it when making decisions and in everyday behavior. A significant stimulus to the development of this branch of psychology was the development of high-level programming languages ​​for computers and programming technology. It is known that the same initial data entered into a computer generate different results in the course of their processing, depending on which program the machine is operating in. So at the level of a person: in order to explain and predict his behavior in response to a certain set of external and internal stimuli, it is necessary to know how he perceives and processes them in his head, how he makes decisions.
Cognitive processes for a psychologist are analogous to a computer program. This branch of knowledge is focused on their study, which is mainly interested in how a person reacts to the world around him in cognitive terms. Cognitive psychology is interested in how a person's consciousness, his system of knowledge, works. In research in this direction, "a person's cognition of the surrounding world ... is considered as an active process, a necessary component of which are psychological means that are formed in the learning process ... including learning by life itself."
Along with the ideas of cybernetics and computer science, psychological theories of the cognitive direction included many special terms borrowed from these sciences: signal, program, information, coding, system input and output, etc. The main special concept of cognitive psychology is "schema". It represents a plan for collecting and a program for processing information about objects and events perceived by the senses in a person's head. The organism has many circuits connected to each other in a dynamic system. In terms of their structure and method of functioning, they depend little on the sources and nature of information. Perception, memory, thinking, and other cognitive processes are determined by schemes in much the same way as the genotype of an organism. Cognitive schemas are formed in the individual experience of a person, but are in part innate. They allow a certain way to perceive, process and store information about the past, present and probable future.
Neo-freudianism ... This trend grew out of the classical psychoanalysis of Freud and is represented by such names as Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), Karen Horney (1885-1952), Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949), Eric Fromm ( 1900-1980), etc. The problems characteristic of him and the basic system of concepts that the supporters of this direction use to solve them have much in common with Freud's theory, although a number of concepts presented in this direction are very radically different from it. Nevertheless, Freudianism and Neo-Freudianism are united by belief in the existence and special role of the unconscious in the psyche and human behavior, the conviction that a person has many stable negative phenomena called "complexes".
The main provisions of A. Adler's psychoanalytic concept are as follows. It denies the direct dependence of human mental development on organic factors. It is argued that from the first years of life, a child develops a pronounced, deeply felt by himself feeling of his own inferiority, which he seeks to overcome. In addition to an inferiority complex, from the first years of life, a striving for creative self-improvement is attributed to a child. A person is viewed as a creature that initially strives for a certain life goal, acting mainly rationally, expediently and deliberately. The purpose of life is established by the person himself. Much depends on her character in a person's behavior: under the influence of a given goal, images, memory are formed, a specific perception of reality, certain character traits, inclinations and abilities, moral character, emotions and feelings are formed.
Another psychoanalytic concept developed by C. Jung is sometimes called "analytical psychology". In accordance with it, the psyche is a complex whole, the relatively independent parts of which are peculiarly separated from each other. The center of human individuality is the so-called "I complex". There are two types of unconscious associated with it: personal and collective ... The first is represented by what is acquired by a person in the course of individual life experience; the second is passed on to him by inheritance and reflects the social experience accumulated by mankind. The personal unconscious contains complexes that make up an integral part of the individual's mental life. The collective unconscious includes myths, primitive forms of thinking, impressions and images that have been deposited in the human brain since ancient times and are passed down from generation to generation. They can manifest themselves, for example, in dreams, the content of which, as it were, returns a person to the distant past.
The personal unconscious appears to a person as a part of his own life; the content of the collective unconscious - something alien to it, strange, unusual, causing strong negative feelings, neuroses. A typical way of existence and representation of the collective unconscious is religious doctrine, associated stories, myths, images, judgments. Fairy tales are another expression of the same in the culture of mankind.
An important merit of Jung to psychological science was the introduction into scientific circulation of ideas about two types of personality: introverted and extroverted. The first is characterized by turning into oneself in search of reasons explaining the actions performed; the second is characterized by a tendency to respond vividly to external influences and to find in them the sources of behavior.
E. Fromm was the author of the concept of "humanistic psychoanalysis". Unlike his teacher Z. Freud, who approved the biological conditionality of the psyche and human behavior, E. Fromm argued that they are socially conditioned. The character of a person is created by society, the circumstances of his life, and where personal freedom is suppressed, pathological characters arise. The most typical of these are: conformism, masochism, sadism, destructive tendencies and hermitism.
Genetic psychology ... The founder of this trend is Jean Piaget (1896-1980), an outstanding psychologist of our time of Swiss origin. This direction is directly related to the study of the mental development of the child, his intellect. The concepts of logic and mathematics found wide application in Piaget's concept, and intellectual development itself is presented in the form of the doctrine of the development of logical thinking in children from birth to early adolescence.
The further development of psychological knowledge in the modern foreign world is characterized by several trends. One of them is the gradual blurring of boundaries between different schools and directions. This, in particular, is reflected in the fact that more and more psychological theories appear in the world, the authors of which deliberately seek to integrate the knowledge accumulated in different psychological concepts: behaviorism, gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, understanding psychology, cognitive psychology and genetic psychology.
The second is that psychology is gradually moving beyond the scope of academic science and becoming a practically very useful field of knowledge. In addition to traditional fields of application for it (medicine, pedagogy), it is widely used in industry, economics, politics, legal practice - in a word, wherever problems related to a person arise. It is now perhaps easier to list those branches of practice where it is needed and actually used.
The third trend is to expand and enrich both the conceptual and methodological apparatus of psychological research at the expense of those sciences with which psychology comes into contact when solving various scientific and applied problems. The growing alliance with cybernetics and computing technology promises a lot of benefits.

Domestic psychological thought also has a long tradition. They are rooted in the 19th century. (if we bear in mind only the development of psychology by scientists specializing in this field of knowledge). Historically, the emergence of interest in psychology in our country was associated with the same processes that preceded its separation as an independent science abroad (before the revolution, the history of our country repeated the main steps of European civilization).
Thanks to the presence of many talented scientists who came to science after the revolution, psychology did not suffer the fate of genetics and cybernetics (although in many respects the history of the development of these sciences in our country is similar). These are Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977) and a number of others. It is their work that we owe in the first place to the fact that nowadays psychologists in our country do not have to start from scratch. They managed not only to preserve and develop science, but also to raise new generations of scientists, who subsequently continued relevant research. These are Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev, Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev (1907-1972), Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets (1905-1981), Daniil Borisovich Elkonin (1904-1984), Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin (1902-1988) and others. The main works of domestic psychologists of this generation fall on the 30-60s. This period is characterized by the emergence and development of several schools and directions:

• one of them originated in Georgia, it was headed by Dmitry Nikolaevich Uznadze (1886-1950). D. N. Uznadze's school adopted the concept of attitude and widely used it to analyze many psychological phenomena;
• another, perhaps the most powerful, direction turned out to be associated with the name of L.S. Vygotsky. It was mainly adhered to by scientists working in Moscow, in particular, at Moscow State University, a number of scientific institutes. The focus of this group of scientists was mainly on issues of general and educational psychology;
• the third school was created by S.L. Rubinstein, who at one time directed scientific research at the Department of Psychology of Moscow State University and at the Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology. Subsequently, he was criticized, which was conducted using far from scientific methods of influence, and removed from office. S.L. Rubinstein is credited with writing the first and only one in our country in terms of fundamental content and breadth of coverage of psychological problems of labor under the title "Foundations of General Psychology" (first appeared in the early 40s and was reprinted in 1989). This work included (as far as the strict censorship of that time allowed) the advanced achievements of Russian and world psychological science. The main achievements of Russian psychological science were mainly related to the following sections:

• general psychology;
• developmental and educational psychology;
• psychophysiology.

B.G. Ananiev made a great contribution to the study of issues of perception, psychology of pedagogical assessment, general integral issues of human history, in which psychology plays the role of a leading science. The merit of B.G. Ananyev was the creation of the Faculty of Psychology at the Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) University, the preparation of a galaxy of well-known scientists in our country, united under the name of the "Leningrad school".
A similar organizational role in the creation of the department and faculty of psychology at Moscow State University was played by S.L. Rubinstein and A.H. Leontiev. A.N. Leontiev also made a significant contribution to the development of problems of perception, memory, consciousness, personality and development of the psyche. He developed a theory called the psychological theory of activity, in line with which cognitive processes acquired an original interpretation.
A.V. Zaporozhets together with D.B. Elkonin laid the foundations of child psychology. In the sphere of the main scientific interests of A.V. Zaporozhets, the organizer and long-term head of the Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR, included issues of age development, upbringing of children. D.B. Elkonin is known as the author of a very popular textbook on child psychology, the theory of child play, the concept of periodization of age development and a new concept of teaching children of primary school age.
A significant contribution to the development of educational psychology was made by the works of P.Ya. Halperin. Of his few, but solid works, the theory of the planned (step-by-step) formation of mental actions, which opened up a practically effective way of teaching mental and other operations for adults and children, was best known.
Thanks to A.R. Luria was told a new word in neuropsychology - a field of knowledge that deals with the study of the anatomical and physiological foundations of higher mental functions, i.e. how perception, attention, memory, imagination and thinking are represented in the human brain. The scientific works of A.R. Luria, dedicated to the study of the neurophysiological foundations of human memory and thinking. They laid the scientific and psychological basis for modern medical psychology, and are widely used now for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in medical practice.
The works of the psychophysiologist E.N. Sokolov. Together with his colleagues, he created the theory of color vision, a theory that explains human perception of the shape of objects, a neurophysiological theory of memory, studied many mechanisms that explain the processes of perception and memory at the neural level. E.N. Sokolov studied in detail the orienting reflex, which was included in the explanatory structure of the neurophysiological bases of attention.
Since the 80s, the process of restructuring of domestic psychological science began, its integration into world psychological knowledge. On the one hand, this process is characterized by the same trends that were noted in the analysis of modern foreign psychology, and on the other hand, it has its own characteristics associated with the socio-political situation in our country. All this is encouraging and allows us to hope that in the near future Russian psychology will again take its rightful place in the world.

Memory riddles

Introduction ……………………………………………………………… ..

What is memory? .............................................. ...............................

Types of memory and mechanisms of its work ………………………… ....

Records memory

The level of memory development in grade 2 students and ways to improve memory

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………

Bibliography…………………………………………………………

Introduction

For a long time, humanity has been interested in the question of what memory is, and where do some people get such incredible abilities in memorization. Why does someone need ten minutes to memorize, and someone an hour. Why does someone remember everything, and someone only fragments.
Memory has been studied since time immemorial, and it is hardly possible to determine the number of years it took to learn it.
Even now, when many studies have been conducted on this issue, there are many mysteries that are not so easy to solve.
Phenomenal memory was noted even among such ancient inhabitants as Caesar and Socrates. Then people had vague notions about memory in general, but about people who had such a memory, they spoke as if from gods.
Now, when science is at its peak, the unique phenomena of memory are being actively studied. Many hypotheses have emerged as to the reasons for this phenomenal memory. People are very interested in this phenomenon, and therefore this topic is very relevant today.
The purpose of my work is to study the phenomena of memory and their varieties.
The subject of study in my work is memory.
A number of tasks that I set myself when doing this work include:
- study of memory, its types, characteristics, mechanisms;
- consideration of the phenomena of memory;
- to identify the level of memory development among students of the 2nd grade of the secondary school №60 and consider ways to improve it.

1.What is memory?

Memory is a copper board covered with letters, which time imperceptibly smoothes out, if sometimes not renewed with a chisel (D. Locke).

Memory is a mental process of imprinting (remembering), preserving and replaying past experiences.

Human memory is an amazing creation of nature. Without her, people would not be able to recognize each other, communicate. We would not have a past, we would only live in the present. Whenever possible, save information, classify it, instantly navigate in it, even modern supercomputers lose memory.

Memory is a very unreliable data store, the contents of which can easily change under the influence of new information. The events of our life pass through our memory like a sieve. Some of them stay in its cells for a long time, while others only for the time it takes to pass through these cells. On the other hand, if all the insignificant information were preserved, then the brain, in the end, would no longer be able to separate the main from the secondary and its activity would be completely paralyzed. Therefore, memory is the ability not only to memorize, but also to forget.

Representatives of various sciences are currently engaged in memory research: psychology, biology, medicine, and a number of others. Each of these sciences has its own questions, its own problems of memory, its own system of concepts and its own theories of memory. But all these sciences, taken together, expand our knowledge of human memory, complement each other, allow us to look deeper into this, one of the most important and mysterious phenomena of human psychology.

2.Types of memory and mechanisms of its work

Different types of information are stored in different types of memory. The oldest of them - motor memory. It is genetically programmed and is responsible for memorizing, storing and reproducing movements: walking, swimming, jumping ... It is the motor memory that helps us to perform habitual actions automatically. It is very durable. Having once mastered a complex motor skill, for example, learning to ride a bicycle or knit, a person surprisingly easily regains it, even after a long break.

Emotional memory protects the experiences that accompanied the events of our life. Emotional impressions are recorded almost instantly. From a biological point of view, this is a kind of warning or attraction system: fear was once associated with one object or action, pain with another, and pleasure with a third. Moreover, negative emotions are more often recorded and held longer. This type of memory is the most durable. It is worth using when teaching. Any material will be assimilated better if you find a way to saturate it with emotions, make it interesting for yourself.

Figurative memory associated with the work of the senses and includes visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, auditory. It is spontaneous, flexible and provides long-term storage of impressions. Many years later, we can definitely remember the taste of grandma's pie, her voice or her touch. Figurative memory is whimsically selective. We see thousands of faces in the city crowd, but for some reason one still stands before our eyes for a long time. For no reason, we remember the melody we heard somewhere. We remember the warmth of the stone heated by the sun, the smell of pine needles from the New Year tree ...

Verbal and logical memory captures information presented in verbal form. In early childhood, this happens automatically, without understanding the meaning. Then we begin to subject the material to semantic processing. The assimilation of complex concepts, ideas, thoughts occurs with the help of verbal-logical memory. Even in order to memorize the simplest action 2 + 2 = 4, not as something written on a piece of paper or a series of sounding words, but as a mathematical judgment, it is necessary to use logical memory. It is she who helps us remember the meaning, regardless of the perceived words. Hearing an explanation of some interesting idea or new concept, we usually convey the essence in our own words when telling the story, and do not remember literally what we heard earlier. Logical memory has no ready-made natural programs. It develops only through communication with other people, fully forming only in adolescence.

A special, rare type of figurative memory is eidetic memory. She has retained extremely vivid, detailed images for some time. If a person who possesses it demonstrates a picture on the screen, and then leaves it in front of a blank screen and starts asking certain questions about what has been shown, he will continue to "examine" this picture. At the same time, the eyes move as if she remained in front of him. This type of memory is the exception, not the rule. Most often it manifests itself in children.

Some prominent artists and musicians were eidetics. For example, the following story is told about the famous French graphic artist Gustave Dore. Once the publisher instructed him to make a drawing from a photograph of an alpine landscape. Dore left, forgetting to take the picture with him, but the next day he brought a completely exact copy of what he saw on the eve.

Eidetic memory is associated with such a feature of perception as synesthesia. This phenomenon arises from the close connection between sensory systems. For example, the perception of a certain color can be associated with the sensation of warmth, and the sounds of music can cause a sequence of visual images. Some composers have a “colored ear”. Alexander Nikolaevich Scriabin even became the creator of light and music.

Photographic memory also preserves this or that image in detail, but its difference from the eidetic is that people have to remember what they saw.

There are other classifications of types of memory. One of them was suggested by R.L. Atkinson, R.S. Atkinson and E.E. Smith. They believe that it is legitimate to allocate only three types of memory. When explicit(pronounced) memory a person consciously recalls the past, and the memories are experienced by him as occurring in a certain place and time. Implicit ( unexpressed) memory associated with previously acquired skills and abilities. The material stored in the implicit memory cannot be consciously recalled. The third type is short-term memory.

We remember not only the information received through the channels of perception through sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch, but also our own thoughts, feelings, images, actions. A person not only absorbs the flow of information from the outside, like a sponge for water, but actively searches for it, as if interrogating the world around him. Along the way, he changes, transforms in his soul all the information obtained - and only then sends it to storage.

Information from the senses is first captured by sensory memory... It provides information retention for a very short time - less than a second. Distinguish between iconic sensory memory (associated with vision), echoic (associated with hearing) and durable, since a person remembers differently with "eyes", "nose", "skin". Immediately after memorization, the forgetting process begins. If the subject within 50 seconds is presented with 16 letters and immediately asks to list them, then he will name 10-12, i.e. about 70% of what he saw. But after 150 s, he will remember 25-35% of the information, and after 250 s, all of it is lost from sensory memory.

In order for the perceived to be preserved, attention must be paid to it. Then the information will go to short-term memory, which is also called operational or working: it ensures the unity and coherence of our activities. For example, when reading a sentence, the meanings of the previous words are sent to the short-term memory - without them it is impossible to grasp the general meaning of the phrase. Information in short-term memory is delayed from several minutes to several hours. If during this time they are not used, they are forgotten; if they are needed in the future, they move to the adjacent hall of long-term memory.

Short-term memory is limited by the law "7 + -2". Person. A drawing with the image of 15-20 objects contemplated for several seconds usually reproduces at least 5 and no more than 9 of them. Curiously, this limitation applies to both animals and birds. However, people are able to overcome the barrier set by nature and remember a much larger amount of material. To do this, you need to group it so that the number of parts obeys the law "7 + -2". For example, a large text can be divided into parts, each of which would vividly represent an important, supporting thought. It is easier to memorize a melody by combining sounds into measures, and a digital series, for example, a phone number, by perceiving two or three adjacent digits as one number. Thus, there is an enlargement of the units of information.

According to various studies, short-term memory improves significantly between the ages of 5 and 11 years. Then it remains at the same level until 30 years old, and after 30 years it gradually worsens. But in some older people, it remains at the same level as in youth, and sometimes it improves.

The most reliable safe - long-term memory... The information placed here is saved and can be reproduced even years later. Over the course of a lifetime, only 28% of what we have ever entered into it disappears from our "archive"; the rest remains with us forever.

The consolidation period - transferring information to long-term memory - takes from 15 minutes to an hour. Repetition is considered the simplest and most familiar way of performing such an operation, but familiar does not mean effective yet. Mechanical memorization will not provide stable memorization. Much better. If thinking helps memory. To remember, for example, a text, you need to establish the logic of presentation or the logic of the sequence of the described events, break the material into semantic blocks and find in each of them a key phrase or a reference point. With such memorization, the material is broken up into fragments according to one principle or another, and then, like from a mosaic, the complete picture is again compiled from them. Data in long-term memory is accumulated according to its significance. Extraction of information takes longer than from short-term memory: it takes time to reach the desired rack of the brain storage, remove the desired folder from the shelf and open it on the desired document.

Sleep works for long-term memory. No wonder they say that the morning is wiser than the evening. During "REM" sleep, the processing of what was perceived during the day takes place. This explains the not so rare cases when in a dream a person comes up with a solution to a problem that torments him. The connection between memory and the number of dreams was discovered by the American researcher C. Pearlman. He studied the duration of the "REM" sleep phases (in such periods, occurring four to five times a night, we see dreams) in students with different levels of memory. It turned out that those who have a good memory have these phases increased. In other words, people with good memories have more dreams.

3.Records of memory

Memory also depends on individual personality traits:

Personal interests and inclinations; (what a person is more interested in is easily remembered)

From the attitude of the individual to a particular activity;

From the emotional state of the physical condition;

From volitional effort and many other factors

Napoleon had an exceptional long-term memory. Once, while still a lieutenant, he was put in the guardhouse and found in the room a book on Roman law, which he read. Two decades later, he could still quote excerpts from it. He knew many of the soldiers of his army not only by sight, but also remembered who was brave, who was firm, who was smart.

Academician A.F. Ioffe used the table of logarithms from memory, and the great Russian chess player A. A. Alekhin could play “blindly” from memory with 30-40 partners at the same time. Which illustrates their excellent visual memory.

Alexander Pushkin's brother, Lev Sergeevich, possessed a phenomenal "photographic" memory. His memory played a salutary role in the fate of the fifth chapter of the poem "Eugene Onegin". A.S. Pushkin lost it on the way from Moscow to St. Petersburg, where he was going to send it to the press, and the draft chapter was destroyed. The poet sent a letter to his brother in the Caucasus and told about what had happened. Soon he received in response the full text of the lost chapter, accurate to the comma: his brother heard it once and read it once.

S.V. Shereshevsky could repeat a sequence of 400 words without errors after 20 years. One of the secrets of his memory was that his perception was complex. Images - visual, auditory, gustatory, tactile - merged for him into a single whole. Shereshevsky heard light and saw sound; he tasted words and colors. “You have such a yellow and crumbly voice,” he said. Synesthesia was noted in N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, A. N. Skryabin, N. K. Chyurlionis. They all have eyesight

was associated with hearing. Rimsky-Korsakov believed that E major was blue, E minor was lilac, F minor was grayish green, and A major was pink. For Scriabin, sound gave rise to the experience of color, light, taste, and even touch. W. Diamandi, who possessed a unique ability to count, also believed that their color helps to memorize and operate numbers, and the process of calculation was presented in the form of endless symphonies of color.

4. The level of memory development in grade 2 students

In the MOU "Secondary School No. 60" we conducted a study to identify the level of memory in 2 grades. 50 people took part in the Study. At the first stage, we conducted a memorization test. We took 16 pictures of various content and showed them to the children.

For 20 seconds, the children examined them and remembered in what order they were located. Then, in a specially prepared table, the children tried to depict them in the order in which they were depicted in the original drawing.

The test result showed that 99% of children were able to remember from 5 to 9 pictures. This means that these children have an average memory. And only one child was able to depict eleven pictures, this child has a good photographic memory.

A B D E F V S I K A O D V E I H

Within 50 seconds, the children memorized the sequence in which these letters were located. As a result, this test showed that the children were able to memorize from 2 to 15 letters. Unfortunately, not all study participants showed a good result, 65% showed an average level of memorization, 30% of students have a low level of memorization, that is, their memory requires training and development. The remaining 5% showed a high level of memorization; these children have a well-developed memory.

After carrying out these tests for a month, every day after lessons, we conducted special exercises for the development of memory. Here are some of them.

1. Take any thing, carefully examine it for 30 seconds, then close your eyes and try to reproduce it as accurately as possible. If some details are not clearly remembered, look at the object again, then close your eyes, and so on until the complete reproduction of the thing.

2. An excellent exercise for developing a child's auditory memory is playing with pairs of words. The exercise can be performed from preschool age. So, write down 10 pairs of words on a sheet of paper that are interconnected by meaning, for example, a chair - a table, a cat - a dog, a fork - a plate. Now you should read these words to the baby 3 times. Be sure to highlight pairs of words with intonation, take your time. After a short period of time, tell the child the first words of the pair, while he should repeat his pair after each of your words. Thus, short-term memory is trained, and for the development of long-term memory, do the same exercise after half an hour.

3. How to develop a child's tactile memory? Blindfold the baby, put different objects in his hands. Then ask him to name the items in the order in which he touched them. At the same time, recognition and memorization work.

4. We also recommend developing the visual memory of children. For the exercise, you need to glue 2 towers from the boxes. In one tower there will be 3 boxes, and in the other there will be 4. First, put the button in one of the boxes, and the child's task is to name which tower and in which compartment the button is located. Then you can use 2 buttons in different towers. A child can start doing the exercise from 3 years old.

5. To develop memory and attention, work well with spot-the-difference pictures. Concentrate on the details as you walk down the street and try to find things as quickly as possible based on a specific feature, such as windows with blue curtains.

After carrying out this work, we repeated the test for memorizing sixteen letters. For the purity of the experiment, we took another row of letters:

ATSYFTSCHDBLRGNIMV

The results of this test showed that the students' memory level increased and 90% wrote this test better than the previous time. This suggests that human memory needs to be trained daily, starting from an early age, and then you will always be sure that your memory will never let you down.

Conclusion

Throughout his life, a person receives a huge amount of information, which is fixed and reproduced using a mental process called memory.
Memory helps us throughout our life. Without memory, our existence would be unthinkable. We would not memorize and reproduce anything, in which case humanity would never have reached the level of civilization that we have now.
Now scientists have come to the conclusion that memory is located in the cerebral cortex, which covers its surface and has a large area due to folds. But until now, the exact localization of memory has not been established.
Memory can be different: voluntary and involuntary, visual and auditory, emotional and verbal-logical, short-term and long-term, genetic and neurological, and so on.
The capabilities of the human brain have not yet been fully explored, and no one can say how much information our brain can accommodate, but the fact remains that none of people uses their brains to their full capacity.
However, there are special laws of memory, the knowledge of which helps people to better remember any information.
In the course of the development of mankind, there were many people who amazed those around them with their extraordinary memory. They had unusual abilities related to memorization and retention of information. Some memorized long series of numbers, and some could reproduce a piece of music heard only once.
And to this day, scientists have not been able to give a clear answer to explain such a phenomenal memory.

In the course of our work, a study was carried out in which we proved that a person is able to memorize about 70% of the information taken away in 50 seconds, and after a few minutes this information is completely erased if it is not useful to him.

We also proved that if you train your memory daily, the number of memorized symbols and drawings will increase. This means that memory can and should be trained and then you will achieve great results.

Bibliography

Brain, Mind and Behavior. F. Blaum, A. Leserson, L. Hofstedter, publishing house "Mir", M. 1988. Translation from English by Ph.D. E.Z. Golina.

Physiology of higher nervous activity. Voronin L.G. Publishing house "Education" M.1974

Article "Memory still suffers", heading "Health", newspaper "Inform policy" No. 48 (791) of November 28, 2007.

Entertaining psychology. Platonov K.K. publishing house "Young Guard", Moscow, 1999

Tests and psychological games "Your psychological portrait", A. Sizanov, AST publishing house, M.2002.

An association is a relationship between individual views in which one of these views causes the other.

Associations are formed on a random basis, so the associative theory does not explain the selectivity of memory. Nevertheless, the associative theory has provided a lot of useful information for understanding the laws of memory. Within the framework of this theory, G. Ebbinghaus worked ("on memory", 1885), who discovered a number of mechanisms and patterns of memory.

Memory is the ability of the soul to form, store and reproduce associations (G. Ebbinghaus)

Ebbinghaus called the process of the revival of some mental content previously perceived in the form of representations reproduction. He called the mechanism of reproduction an association - a mental connection that arises between a process observed in reality and the possibility of its occurrence in case of its absence, a connection between psychological phenomena when the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. Thus, association is the internal reason for reproduction. At the same time, Ebbinghaus emphasized that reproduced sensations and representations are not identical with those that existed before, but only similar to them, and, nevertheless, are capable of awakening previously observed mental formations.

The flow of a person's ideas, in his opinion, is regulated by 4 different associations:

1. by similarity;

2. by contrast;

3. by contiguity in time and space

4. by causality (causal relationship)

Features of studying memory in associative psychology:

the study of "clean" memory, i.e. maximum shutdown of complex mental activity (mental, emotional, etc.) when memorizing,

the strictest regulation and standardization of experimental research,

study of the dependence of memory efficiency on external conditions, especially on the number and organization of repetitions,

almost exclusive attention to the productive (quantitative, not qualitative) side of memory.

Methods for the experimental study of memory

They were first proposed in associative psychology by G. Ebbinghaus:

recognition method,

memorization method,

method of anticipation (anticipation),

saving method.

Experimental studies of memory in associative psychology

study of changes in memory over time - the forgetting curve (G. Ebbinghaus), It was obtained by G. Ebbinghaus in an experimental study by the method of saving.

study of the position of elements in a row for memorization - the edge effect (G. Ebbinghaus). When memorizing, saving and reproducing a homogeneous and large volume of material, its elements located at the beginning and at the end of the row are better remembered.

study of the influence of the degree of homogeneity of a material on memorization - the effect of A. von Restorf, Dissimilar elements of a material included in a number of homogeneous elements are retained in memory better than homogeneous ones, regardless of the nature of the material.

study of the influence of the meaningfulness of the material on memorization (McTech),

study of the influence of the way of organizing repetitions on memorization.

Memory occupies a special place in the structure of the psyche: it is somehow integrated into all mental cognitive processes - and therefore received the status of a "general organic function". Memory provides processes for the preservation of individual experience, as well as genetically determined mechanisms for transmitting information.

At present, memory as a mental cognitive process is represented in all studies in general psychology.

Let's consider the main terminological apparatus on the topic "Memory", designated by domestic researchers.

A.V. Petrovsky, R.S.Nemov, A.G. Maklakov define memory as a mental cognitive process. It should be noted that the definitions are almost identical: A. V. Petrovsky: "Memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by an individual of his experience" General psychology / edited by A. V. Petrovsky. M .: Aspect Press, 2004.S. 291 ..

R.S. Nemov gives several definitions: "... the ability to receive, store and reproduce life experience" and the second, more accurate and strict, from his point of view: "... psychophysiological and cultural processes that perform the functions of memorizing, preserving and reproducing in life information "Nemov R.S. Psychology. M .: Humanitarian publishing center "VLADOS". 2003. Vol.1. S. 184 ..

A.G. Maklakov: “By memory we mean the imprinting, preservation, subsequent recognition and reproduction of traces of past experience.” Maklakov A.G. General psychology. SPb .: Speech. 2000.S. 247 ..

Thus, we can conclude that all of the above definitions are based on the basic processes of memory (all authors emphasize memorization and reproduction, with some discrepancy in the mention of "recognition"). R.S.Nemov notes at the same time the psychophysiological and cultural specificity of memory processes (in this case, it can be assumed that its definition is based on L.S.Vygotsky's concept of the cultural and historical development of higher mental functions).

The above researchers pay attention to the role of memory processes in human life: memory "separates a person from the animal kingdom and ... is a condition for successful adaptation" (RS Nemov); “Ensures the unity and integrity of the personality” (A.V. Petrovsky); “Is a“ through ”process that ensures the continuity of mental processes and unites all cognitive processes into a single whole” (A.G. Maklakov).

Thus, the adaptive and integrating functions of the memory are emphasized.

In science, the first ideas about memory were reduced to understanding this mental phenomenon as a specific imprint (in another way, a trace) of objects (in another way, various types of stimuli) that were perceived by a person in the process of cognizing the world around him.

The mechanisms of mnemonic processes were studied in the context of different sciences: physiology, biology, psychology.

From the point of view of biochemistry, mnemic processes are associated with changes in the composition of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and other biochemical structures, which causes the memorization, preservation and reproduction of "traces" of neuro-cerebral processes. A.V. Petrovsky considers the value of RNA as "the basis of individual memory", and all structural and chemical changes in the cells of the brain are "the product of previous activity", which are "a necessary condition for ... more complex actions."

From the point of view of physiology, the functioning of memory and, above all, such a mnemonic process as storing information, is due to the formation of neural connections, or associations. The physiological nature of mnemonic processes is presented in various studies with some disagreements. Nevertheless, almost everywhere, memory is treated as an elementary process of imprinting, which has a biological origin.

Memorization is possible in the event of electrical activity. A reciprocal relationship was found between chemical and structural changes in the brain and electrical activity. The process of reverberation is considered in detail, according to which a "simple chain" arises, in which the excitation makes a circle and starts a new one. The reverberation process can be terminated in the event of the appearance of new signals, chemical processes in neurons and synapses. The fact of preserving the received information throughout life is explained by the presence of multiple electrical activity in neurons - “consolidation”.

A.V. Petrovsky and A.G. Maklakov associate the development of the physiological theory of memory, first of all, with such a discovery in the field of physiology as the teaching of I.P. Pavlov about the laws of higher nervous activity. AV Petrovsky, using the terms "stimulus" and "reinforcement," asserts that reinforcement is "nothing more than the achievement of the immediate goal of an individual's action." And this formulation of the question is fully consistent with the basic provisions of the domestic theory of activity.

Numerous studies note the fact that the physiological mechanisms of memory have not yet been fully studied.

Let's consider the main psychological theories of memory.

AVPetrovsky, AGMaklakov note the presence of three theories of memory: psychological, physiological and biochemical, representing "different levels" of studying this problem. "

A.V. Petrovsky believes that all theories of memory should be classified depending on what role they assigned to the activity of the subject in the formation of memory processes and how they considered the nature of this activity. A. V. Petrovsky notes that in most theories, the focus was either on the object ("material" itself, or the subject ("pure activity of consciousness"), regardless of the activity of the individual. Thus, this author comes to the conclusion that "inevitable one-sidedness of all theories ”.

Let's pay attention to the associative theories, which were first presented by Aristotle: associations by contiguity, associations by similarity, associations by contrast. Then these ideas were experimentally proved by a number of foreign and domestic researchers.

D. Hume, W. James, G. Spencer created the concept of associative psychology, according to which practically all mental phenomena were interpreted mainly from a mechanistic point of view. The authors of this concept believed that there is some connection between all mental processes, which does not depend in the process of reflecting the realities of the external world on the person's awareness of their most important internal connections.

A.V. Petrovsky conducted a critical analysis of the "associative theory", which, from his point of view, despite some positive aspects, does not answer the question of what determines the selectivity of memory, and in a number of other areas, memory processes are not associated with the activity of the subject and are applied in relation to only the highest stages of memory development. The most correct theory capable of considering memory in the necessary scientific context, from the point of view of A.V. Petrovsky, is the theory of activity, since it allows one to single out activity as the main determinant of the formation of memory as one of the mental processes.

Nevertheless, some ideas of the theory of associative connections were experimentally confirmed by Russian psychophysiologists I.M.Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov. I.P. Pavlov examined the main patterns of associative connections, which, in his opinion, consist in the existence of temporary connections that arise as a result of simultaneous or sequential exposure to two or more stimuli.

The well-known German psychologist L.G. Ebbinghaus considered the processes of memory in the context of the formation of associations. In connection with this methodological basis, the researcher studied mechanical memory by memorizing unrelated units (syllables). Today, his experimental studies are classic, which made it possible to establish a number of important patterns of memorizing, preserving and forgetting information.

In modern psychology, the associative theory is presented as one of the many explanatory models of mnemonic processes.

In the context of this work, the Gestalt concept regarding the problem of memory mechanisms deserves special attention. In their understanding of the nature of mnemonic processes, the representatives of this theory relied on the idea of ​​"gestalt", which presupposes an initial, integral organization of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. Thus, it was emphasized that memory processes are due to the formation of gestalt ("whole", "structure", "system"). That is, it is the presence of the systemic organization of the whole that affects the characteristics and mechanisms of the functioning of its parts.

Experimental studies of memory, carried out in the context of gestalt psychology, were based on the postulate of the integral structure of the material that a person remembers and reproduces. Thus, this assumption acted as an alternative to the associative theory, according to which random sets of elements are perceived, imprinted and reproduced.

From the point of view of representatives of Gestalt psychology, the reproduction of certain information was due to the fact that a person had a certain mindset for memorization or reproduction, which contributed to the formation of certain integral structures in the human mind, control of the process of memorization and reproduction, and the selection of the necessary information.

In the context of gestalpsychology, a number of experiments were carried out in Russian psychology, for example, under the leadership of B.V. Zeigarnik. Thus, the concept of "the effect of an unfinished action" entered Russian psychology, which is consistent with the "quasi-need" discovered by K. Levin. The main content of the phenomena of memory identified by psychologists is that the subjects remember best of all those tasks that by the end of the experiment remained incomplete. That is, the need to complete the assignment remained unfulfilled. Conclusions were made about the influence of motivation due to the fact of unfinished tasks on memory selectivity.

In the semantic theory of memory, A. Binet and K. Buhler considered the dependence of mnemonic processes on the presence of certain semantic connections, which make it possible to combine the memorized material into “semantic structures”. That is, representatives of this direction considered the semantic content of the memorized material to be the main determinant of the processes of memorization and reproduction.

In the psychoanalytic direction, starting with Freud, various phenomena of memory (for example, the phenomenon of "childhood amnesia") have been studied quite widely. Traditional psychoanalytic ideas about the influence of such personal characteristics as emotions, motives, needs on the functioning of a number of mnemonic processes seem to be an important contribution to the development of the theory of memory. The concept of psychological defense mechanisms by Z. Freud and A. Freud highlighted in sufficient detail the problem of "motivated forgetting", presented at the basis of the "displacement" of traumatic events from the conscious level of the psyche. There was obtained ambiguous information about how negative and positive events are retained in memory. So, for example, some representatives of modern psychoanalysis believe that negative events are reproduced more often by individuals with a strong "I".

In the behavioral direction, attempts were also made to study mnemonic processes, which in some way echoed the ideas of associative theory. From the point of view of representatives of behavioral psychology, successful memorization is facilitated by the reinforcement of mnemonic activity with some kind of stimulus.

Despite the numerous experimental facts obtained, the question of the origin of memory remained practically open. Nevertheless, within the framework of the French psychological school (for example, in the works of P. Janet) such mnemonic processes as memorization, processing and preservation were first identified; and also - the idea of ​​the social determination of mnemonic processes, their conditioning by the practical activity of a person has been substantiated.

The problem of the development of students' memory in the process of educational activity, considered in this work, has led to special attention to the study of memory in the context of higher mental functions.

Studies of the formation and development of higher mental functions are presented in most detail in the concept of cultural and historical development of the domestic psychologist L.S.Vygotsky, and then experimentally substantiated by A.A. Smirnov and P.I. Zinchenko.

So, in Vygotsky's concept, special attention was paid to the problem of higher voluntary and conscious forms of memory, which first exist in the form of interpsychic functions, as a product of interaction between a child and an adult, and then, through gradual internalization, acquire the status of intrapsychic functions, that is, they become the basis for arbitrary reference to one's experience and independent use of various methods of mnemonic activity. Vygotsky L.S. Memory and its development in childhood // Development of higher mental functions. M .: Academy. 2007.S. 50-62.

Highlighting the natural and cultural levels of development of the human psyche, Vygotsky experimentally confirmed the existence of higher forms of memory, which are social in origin. He also studied the development of memory in phylogeny and ontogeny. The ontogenetic aspect of the development of memory included the stages of voluntary and involuntary, direct and mediated functioning of mnemonic processes.

As noted by R.M. Granovskaya, the merit of L. S. Vygotsky is that he "threw a bridge" between involuntary and mediated voluntary memory. From his point of view, the development of voluntary memory from involuntary in a child is possible in the case of interaction with an adult using the latter mediating function of speech. The first stages of the formation of arbitrary memory are presented in the form of external actions using objects. Then actions are internalized and self-regulated - at this stage, memory acquires the characteristics of an indirect and logical Granovskaya R.M. Elements of practical psychology. St. Petersburg: Publishing house of St. Petersburg University. 2008.S. 76-140 ..

A.N. Leontiev connected historically early forms of arbitrary memory with the process of memorizing some objects through others. For example, a pebble put by a person in his pocket under certain circumstances, later falling into his hand, performed the function of a "reminder", that is, was used as a specific means of memorizing Leontyev A.N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M .. Academy. 2006.S. 89-94 ..

In the literature, there are numerous descriptions of "folk" mnemonic means and actions: notches, cuts, knots for memory, etc. Thus, memorization and reproduction with the help of all these auxiliary means can be considered as “mediated”.

Traditionally, there are two directions in the development of mediated memorization in phylogeny. The first direction is usually associated with the use of external object mediators (amulets, pebbles, etc.), contributing to memory optimization. The result of this "path" was the construction of monuments, the development of writing, the emergence of photography, cinematography, etc. The second direction in the development of mediated memorization presupposed the inclusion of special actions (tying a "knot for memory", notches) in the organization of the process of memorization and reproduction.

Gradually, in the process of phylogenetic development, the independence of the reproduction of information from external intermediaries was formed. External stimuli, specific to involuntary memory, began to be replaced by internal stimuli as voluntary memory was formed.

LS Vygotsky noted that speech was the main tool for the development of voluntary memory. The process of a person's mastery of internal speech contributed to the use of the word as an internal stimulus, a kind of mediator, with the help of which it is possible to organize the processes of self-regulation of memorization and reproduction.

P. Janet, studying memorization as an activity that compensates for the absence, identified the following stages in the formation of memory in a child: "expectation", "delayed action", "preservation of instructions" (first with the help of objects, then - with the help of signs). Voluntary memory reaches its highest level if the child is ready to reproduce the memorized material. The more common retelling involves the child's ability to differentiate the temporal perspective of events and an awareness of relationships.

Thus, the ontogenetic context of the formation of individual memory largely corresponds to phylogeny: remembering is first carried out through objects, then with the help of a word, and, finally, through the structure of words.

In the studies of A.A. Smirnov and P.I. Zinchenko, experimental searches for arbitrary forms of mnemonic activity were deepened, and also the connection between memory processes and thinking processes was considered. Following the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky and A. N. Leontiev, these psychologists discovered the patterns of memory as a meaningful human activity, revealed the dependence of memorization on the structural and meaningful characteristics of goal-setting, identified a number of mnemonic techniques Zinchenko T.P. Memory in experimental and cognitive psychology. SPb .: Peter. 2003.524 p.

Modern domestic psychological science adheres to the point of view that memory, first of all, is determined by the nature of a person's activity and the direction of his personality.

To date, the point of view has been established, according to which memory processes cannot be considered separately from the characteristics and properties of the individual. It has been experimentally proven that certain manifestations of memory are primarily determined by the orientation and motivational sphere of the personality.

As you know, the orientation of the personality is diverse in its content: it absorbs a large number of goals and motives of activity, inclinations, interests, different in terms of the degree of stability. Thus, the originality of the course of mnemonic processes is also determined. A large amount of experimental data has been obtained in favor of the fact that objects of the surrounding world, included in the sphere of interests of the individual, are remembered much more efficiently and are preserved for a long time. It influences the characteristics of mnemonic activity and the professional orientation of the individual.

Memory depends on various personal characteristics: age, development of volitional, emotional and intellectual spheres.

In Russian psychology, experimental confirmation and some psychoanalytic ideas regarding mnemonic processes have been found. For example, P.P. Blonsky conducted research in which he found that emotionally colored information is memorized more effectively than neutral in terms of emotions. He experimentally proved that more than 90.0% of the memorized information has a negative emotional connotation. P.P. Blonsky invited the subjects to reproduce in writing early childhood memories. It should be noted that the following thematic groups were presented in the first three places in terms of frequency of occurrence: “mysterious and new”, “death”, “strong fright and fears”. The last places were occupied by: "happy moments", "other", "emotionally indifferent events" Blonsky P.P. Memory and thinking. Psychological analysis of recollection // Selected psychological works. M .: Euro-Znak, 2004.S. 34-40 ..

S.L. Rubinshtein agrees that an emotionally rich event will be captured better than an emotionally neutral one. However, he emphasizes, the capture of a pleasant or unpleasant event will depend on the degree of its relevance for a person's personality, on his place in the history of its development. So, for example, a pleasant event, which was the completion of an action that was once relevant to a person, will most likely be forgotten. But if a pleasant memory is associated with currently unresolved problems that determine new prospects for the development of personality, then it will most likely be preserved in memory. The same logic applies to unpleasant events.

Also S.L. Rubinshtein notes that the content of the memorized material depends on the characterological characteristics of the personality Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology / compiled by A.V. Brushlinsky, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya. SPb .: Peter. 2000.594s ..

In modern studies on the history of psychology, the role of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, A. A. Smirnov and P. I. Zinchenko in the study of memory in the framework of the theory of the development of higher mental functions and the theory of activity is repeatedly noted.

So, for example, RS Nemov emphasizes that in the context of the theory of activity “memory acts as a special type of psychological activity, including a system of theoretical and practical actions, subordinate to the solution of the mnemonic task - memorizing, preserving and reproducing various information ...; it is carefully investigated ... the dependence of memory products on the place in the structure of the purpose and means of memorization, ... the comparative productivity of voluntary and involuntary memorization, depending on the organization of mnemonic activity ... ".