Sections of the site
Editor's Choice:
- Weightless life: how astronauts sleep, eat and relieve themselves at the station
- "heroic landing" of the allies in normandy
- Four kingdoms of living nature
- The main mysteries of the history of Russia
- "Heroic landing" of the allies in Normandy (12 photos)
- Basic instincts. Hunting and gathering. Three basic instincts
- The brightest planet. For everyone and everything
- Which planet is the brightest in the sky
- World voyages and travel
- Russian spirit!!! great Russia !!! Glorious exploits of Russian heroes
Advertising
| Download the research basics study guide. Up-to-date list of references: "Fundamentals of Scientific Research". "Fundamentals of Scientific Research" |
|
SHORT COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE DISCIPLINE "Fundamentals of Scientific Research"Associate Professor of the Department of Theory and state history Slavova N.A. Work plan for the discipline "fundamentals of scientific research"
Topic 1. Subject and system of the course "Fundamentals of Scientific Research". Science and Science of Science PlanSubject, objectives, purpose of the course "Fundamentals of Scientific Research" General characteristics of science and scientific activities Conceptual apparatus of science Types of scientific works and their general characteristics Ludchenko A.A. Fundamentals of Scientific Research: Textbook. allowance. - K .: Knowledge, 2000. Pilipchuk M.I., Grigor'ev A.S., Shostak V.V. Basics of scientific doslіdzhen. - K., 2007 .-- 270s. P'yatnitska-Pozdnyakova I.S. Fundamentals of Scientific Doslidzhen at Vishy Schools. - K., 2003 .-- 270s. Romanchikov V.I. Basics of scientific doslіdzhen. - К .: Center for educational literature. - 254p. 5. Sabitov R.A. Fundamentals of Scientific Research. - Chelyabinsk: Publishing house of the Chelyabinsk State University, 2002. - 139p. 6. About the information: the Law of Ukraine dated January 2, 1992. (from changes and additions) // Vidomosty of the Verkhovna for the sake of Ukraine. - 1992. - No. 48. - Art. 650. 7. About science and scientific-technical activity: the Law of Ukraine from 13th December 1991 p. (from changes and additions) // Vidomosty of the Verkhovna for the sake of Ukraine. - 1992. - No. 12. - Art. 165. 8. On science and state scientific and technical policy: Law of the Russian Federation of August 23, 1996 (with amendments and additions) [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_149218/ 9. On information, information technologies and information protection: Law of the Russian Federation of July 27, 2006 (with amendments and additions) [Electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://www.rg.ru/2006/07/29/informacia-dok.html Fundamentals of Scientific Research is one of the introductory academic disciplines that precede the fundamental study of jurisprudence. However, unlike other disciplines of an introductory or auxiliary nature, this course is the first step not only and not so much in the study of legal science, but in the study of such a complex scientific field as jurisprudence. Subject of the course "Fundamentals of Scientific Research": methodological foundations of the organization and methods of carrying out scientific research. purpose: to form in students a number of skills and abilities necessary for independent creative activity in science and writing a scientific (term, diploma and other qualification) work. Tasks: the study of the general rules for writing and formatting a scientific work, the sequence of actions performed by the researcher at each stage of scientific activity; familiarization with the basic methods of scientific research, the logical rules for presenting the material; acquiring the skills of searching and processing legal scientific literature, taking notes and summarizing material, compiling annotations and abstracts, making references and a list of sources used; mastering the language of scientific work and familiarization with the conceptual apparatus of scientific research. Modern society cannot exist without science. In conditions of economic, political, ecological crisis, science is the main instrument in solving the corresponding problems. In addition, the economic and social position of the state directly depends on legal science, since the success of innovative development, financial stability, etc. is impossible without scientific research in the field of jurisprudence. Therefore, science is a productive force of society, a system of knowledge accumulated by mankind about the surrounding reality, the optimal means of influencing it, forecasting and the prospects for the progressive development of society, reflects the relationship between scientists, scientific institutions, authorities, and also determines the axiological value aspects of science. The concept of "science" includes both the activity of obtaining new knowledge and the result of this activity - the "sum" of scientific knowledge obtained, which together create scientific picture the world. The science is a system of knowledge about the objective laws of reality, a process of activity to obtain, systematize new knowledge (about nature, society, thinking, technical means in using human activity) in order to obtain scientific result based on certain principles and methods. Modern science consists of various branches of knowledge that interact and at the same time have relative independence. The division of science into certain types depends on the selected criteria and the tasks of its systematization. Branches of science are usually classified according to three main areas: Exact sciences - mathematics, computer science; Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena; Social Sciences: A systematic study of human behavior and society. In accordance with Art. 2 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" (hereinafter - the Law of the Russian Federation) nscientific (research) activity- activities aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge, including: basic scientific research- experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of man, society, environment; applied research- research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems; exploratory research- research aimed at obtaining new knowledge for the purpose of its subsequent practical application (oriented scientific research) and (or) the application of new knowledge (applied scientific research) and carried out by performing research work. Also, the Law of the Russian Federation determines scientific and (or) scientific and technical result Is a product of scientific and (or) scientific and technical activity, containing new knowledge or solutions and recorded on any information medium. The Law of Ukraine "On Scientific and Scientific and Technical Activity" gives the following definitions. Scientific activity is an intellectual creative activity aimed at obtaining and using new knowledge. Its main forms are fundamental and applied scientific research. Scientific research- a special form of the cognition process, a systematic, purposeful study of objects, in which the means and methods of science are used, as a result of which knowledge about the object under study is formulated. In turn, fundamental Scientific research- scientific theoretical and (or) experimental activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the laws of development of nature, society, man, their relationship, and applied Scientific research- scientific activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge that can be used for practical purposes. Scientifically- researchactivity- This is a research activity, which consists in obtaining objectively new knowledge. Since the purpose of the course "Fundamentals of Scientific Research" is to form a number of skills and abilities in students necessary for independent creative activity in science and writing a scientific (course, diploma and other qualification) work, it is necessary to pay attention to the organization of scientific activities when writing scientific works, in particular course. Choosing a research topic. It is desirable that the topic term paper coincided with scientific interests. Consistency. Planning. Substantial planning (content of scientific work) and temporary (implementation of the schedule). Focus on scientific results. Each of the sciences has its own conceptual apparatus. All scientific concepts reflect (formulate) a static or dynamic objective, generally accepted reality. These concepts have a certain internal structure, comparative characteristics, and therefore specificity. They, as a rule, are generally accepted and, in a sense, reference. It is from these concepts that any thought that carries objective information, scientific theory or discussion, and other concepts should be built. It should be noted that the primary concept in the formation of scientific knowledge is scientific idea... The materialized expression of a scientific idea is hypothesis... Hypotheses, as a rule, are probabilistic in nature and go through three stages in their development: Accumulation of factual material and making assumptions based on it; Formulation and justification of the hypothesis; Checking the results If the obtained practical result corresponds to the assumption, then the hypothesis turns into scientific theory... The structure of a theory as a complex system is formed by interrelated principles, laws, concepts, categories, facts. Scientific work- This is a study with the aim of obtaining a scientific result. Types of scientific work: course work... In the first to fourth years of study, students perform exactly this type of work. It is an independent educational and research student work, which confirms the receipt of theoretical and practical skills in the disciplines that the student is studying. thesis; Master's work; dissertation; monograph; Research Article; BIBLIOGRAPHY1. Arnold, I.V. Fundamentals of scientific research in linguistics / I.V. Arnold. - M .: KD Librokom, 2016 .-- 144 p. Fundamentals of Scientific Research Introduction Science - sphere research activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge about nature, society and thinking. At present, the development of science is associated with the division and cooperation of scientific labor, the creation of scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment. As a consequence of the social division of labor, science arises after the separation mental labor from physical and transformation cognitive activities in a specific occupation of a special group of people. The emergence of large-scale machine production creates the conditions for the transformation of science into an active factor in production itself. The basis of this activity is the collection scientific facts, their constant updating and systematization, critical analysis and, on this basis, the synthesis of new scientific knowledge or generalizations that not only describe the observed natural or social phenomena, but also allow you to build causal relationships and, as a result, predict. Those natural science theories and hypotheses, which are confirmed by facts or experiments, are formulated in the form of laws of nature or society. Scientific research, application-based research scientific method, provides scientific information and theories to explain the nature and properties of the surrounding world. Such research can have practical applications. Scientific research can be funded by the government, non-profit organizations, commercial companies and individuals. Scientific research can be classified according to its academic and applied nature. The main goal of applied research (as opposed to fundamental research) is the discovery, interpretation and development of methods and systems for improving human knowledge in various branches of human knowledge. Fig. Generalized scheme (algorithm) of the study 1) understanding the problem A scientific problem is awareness, the formulation of the concept of ignorance. If a problem is identified and formulated in the form of an idea, a concept, then this means that you can start setting a problem to solve it. With the introduction of the Russian language into the culture, the concept of "problem" has undergone a transformation. In Western culture, a problem is a problem to be solved. In Russian culture, a problem is a strategic stage in solving a problem, at an ideological and conceptual level, when there is an implicit set of conditions, a list of which can be formalized and taken into account in the formulation of a problem (a list of conditions, parameters, the boundary conditions (limit of values) of which are included in the conditions of the problem). The more complex the object of consideration (the more complex the chosen topic), the more ambiguous, vague questions (problems) it will accommodate, and the more difficult it will be to formulate a problem and find solutions, that is, the problematics of a scientific work should contain classification and prioritization in the direction of ... The object of research is a certain process or phenomenon of reality that generates a problem situation. An object is a kind of bearer of the problem, what the research activity is aimed at. The research subject is a specific part of the object within which the search is conducted. The subject of the research should be characterized by a certain independence, which will make it possible to critically evaluate the hypothesis correlated with it. In each object, you can select several research items. 2. Making a decision about research Scientific research is usually understood as small scientific tasks related to a specific topic of scientific research. The choice of direction, problems, topics of scientific research and the formulation of scientific questions is an extremely responsible task. The direction of research is often predetermined by the specifics of the scientific institution, the branch of science in which the researcher works. Therefore, the choice of scientific direction for each individual researcher often comes down to the choice of the branch of science in which he wants to work. Concretization of the same direction of research is the result of studying the state of production demands, social needs and the state of research in one direction or another in a given period of time. In the process of studying the state and results of research already carried out, ideas can be formulated for the integrated use of several scientific directions for solving production problems. 1)Statement of the research goal. Formulation of the object and subject of research. The purpose of the study is the general direction of the study, the expected end result. The purpose of the research indicates the nature of the research tasks and is achieved through their solution. Research objectives - a set of target settings, which formulate the basic requirements for the analysis and solution of the problem under study. The object of research is the area of practical activity to which the research process is directed. The choice of the research object determines the boundaries of the application of the results obtained. The subject of research is the essential properties of the object of research, the knowledge of which is necessary to solve the problem, within which the object is studied in this particular research. Statement of the problem and its preliminary study - First stage the process of analytical work, on which the goals, objectives, subject, objects and information base of the research are finally determined, the main results, methods and forms of implementation are predicted. The research problem is a kind of question, the answer to which is not contained in accumulated knowledge, and its search requires analytical actions, different from information search. From an organizational point of view, the result staging stage should become a short document, briefly reflecting the goals, objectives and main parameters of the study. Typically, such a document, called a research plan, should include: Research objectives. It is necessary to characterize the research problem, its main tasks, describe the most important information that the director hopes to receive in the research process. Finally, it is necessary to describe how specifically this information can be used. Market segment and description of the surveyed populations. This is a very important question, since in a typical case, the object of a focus group study is not the entire population, but only some of its key segments (electorate, population or demographic groups, etc.). The principle of identifying key segments determined by the objectives of the study should not be confused with the methodological principle of dividing these segments into homogeneous groups (more on this below). The scope of the study, i.e. total number groups and the number of geographic locations with justification based on the objectives of the study, and the cost of its implementation. 2)Collecting start information First, let's figure out what information is. Information is a general scientific concept associated with the objective properties of matter and their reflection in human consciousness. IN modern science two types of information are considered. Objective (primary) information is the property of material objects and phenomena (processes) to generate a variety of states, which are transmitted through interactions (fundamental interactions) to other objects and are imprinted in their structure. Subjective (semantic, semantic, secondary) information is the semantic content of objective information about objects and processes of the material world, formed by a person's consciousness with the help of semantic images (words, images and sensations) and recorded on some material medium. IN modern world information is one of the most important resources and, at the same time, one of the driving forces of the development of human society. Information processes occurring in the material world, living nature and human society are studied (or at least taken into account) by all scientific disciplines from philosophy to marketing. The increasing complexity of scientific research tasks has led to the need to involve large teams of scientists of different specialties in their solution. Therefore, almost all theories discussed below are interdisciplinary. Gathering information before designing is one of the most essential and important steps. Let's figure out why this is needed and what actions can be included in it. The point of collecting information is to get as much information as possible about the problem area. This helps to understand what has already been done by other people, how it has been done, why it has been done, what has not been done by them, what users want. As a result, after collecting and processing information, we get quite extensive knowledge for the next stage. 3. Formulation of a hypothesis. Choice of methodology. Drawing up a program and research plan. Choosing an information base for research In science, ordinary thinking, we go from ignorance to knowledge, from incomplete knowledge to more complete. We have to put forward and then substantiate various assumptions to explain the phenomena and their relationship with other phenomena. We put forward hypotheses that, when confirmed, can turn into scientific theories or into separate true judgments, or, conversely, will be refuted and turn out to be false judgments. A hypothesis is a scientifically grounded assumption about the causes or regular connections of any phenomena or events of nature, society, thinking. The specificity of the hypothesis - to be a form of knowledge development - is predetermined by the main property of thinking, its constant movement - deepening and development, the desire of a person to discover new patterns and causal links that is dictated by the needs of practical life. The main properties of the hypothesis: · Uncertainty of the true meaning; · Focus on the disclosure of this phenomenon; · Making assumptions about the results of solving the problem; · Possibility to put forward a "project" for solving a problem As a rule, a hypothesis is expressed on the basis of a number of observations (examples) confirming it, and therefore looks plausible. The hypothesis is subsequently either proved, turning it into an established fact, or refuted, transferring it into the category of false statements. The methodology of science, in the traditional sense, is the doctrine of the methods and procedures of scientific activity, as well as a section of the general theory of knowledge, especially the theory of scientific knowledge and the philosophy of science. Methodology, in the applied sense, is a system of principles and approaches of research activity, on which a researcher relies in the process of obtaining and developing knowledge within a specific discipline. Drawing up a program and research plan. The analysis of the work done should be carried out not only on the basis of the existing reporting documentation, but also through specially conducted sample statistical studies. The statistical research plan is drawn up in accordance with the planned program. The main questions of the plan are: · determination of the purpose of the study; · definition of the object of observation; · determination of the term of the work at all stages; · type indication statistical observation and method; · determination of the place where the observations will be carried out; · finding out by what forces and under whose methodological and organizational guidance the research will be carried out. Research information base - component preliminary study of the problem, within the framework of which the sufficiency of information materials, ways and means of obtaining it are revealed, a bibliography is compiled by sources. Collection of the main information array. Setting up an experiment if necessary. After identifying information sources, the creation of the main information array begins, i.e. the process of collecting and accumulating specific information. At the same time, it is advisable to initially provide for a qualitative classification of the main elements of the information array. So, the information included in it can be primary or secondary. In the first case, information is a loosely ordered set of facts, in the second - the result of a certain logical understanding on the part of direct participants in events or external observers. Each of these types of information has its own advantages and disadvantages from the point of view of prospects for applied use. Collecting primary information is always very laborious, although it attracts with the opportunity to include interesting and original material in the development. The selection of secondary information takes relatively less time, since it has already undergone a certain systematization, but, relying only on it, the researcher runs the risk of being held captive by previously established ideas. Exploratory research includes: · the preparatory stage, combining the analysis of literary sources and the experience of other organizations, the search for an analogue, a feasibility study of the feasibility of conducting a study, determining possible research directions, developing and approving a technical task; · development of the theoretical part of the topic, consisting of the preparation of research schemes, calculations and modeling of the main research processes, the development of technologies for experiments and laboratory testing methods; · experimental work and testing and correction of theoretical calculations based on their results; · Acceptance of works. Applied research can be carried out in the same sequence as exploratory research, but they are characterized by an increase in the proportion of experimental work and tests. In this regard, the problem of planning experiments in order to reduce the number of the latter to a rational minimum becomes essential. Research and development activities include the following stages: · development of technical specifications; · choosing the direction of research; · theoretical and experimental research; · registration of results; · Acceptance. From a methodological point of view, the creation of an information array involves ensuring the reliability, reliability and novelty of the selected data. Application of these three criteria is necessary condition the adequacy of the final conclusions that can be obtained on the basis of further analysis. The degree of novelty of the selected data is usually determined on a case-by-case basis. As for the reliability and reliability, they are ensured thanks, firstly, to the observance of certain rules in the development of search criteria, and secondly, by fixing the data. In modern conditions, information arrays can be created both as a result of the stage-by-stage preparation of information within the framework of a specific project, and by referring to already available and accessible data banks. The databank differs from the usual information array not only in that it is implemented in electronic form, but also in its functional features. When creating specialized databanks, they usually provide for the performance of two target functions: information retrieval and information logical. The information retrieval function is implemented when considering issues related to the semantic content of data, regardless of how they are represented in the memory of the system. At the design stage of this function, a part of the real world is allocated, which determines the information needs of the system, i.e. its subject area. In this regard, the following issues are being resolved: · what phenomena of the real world need to accumulate and process information in the system; · what are the main characteristics of phenomena and relationships will be taken into account; · how the characteristics of the concepts introduced into the information system will be refined. Information logic function provides data representation in memory information system... When designing this function, forms of data presentation in the system are developed, as well as models and methods of data presentation and transformation are provided, and rules for their semantic interpretation are formed. The value of the databank is in the accumulation of comprehensive unique information that allows you to trace political chronology, determine cause-and-effect relationships, trends, and establish the types of information carriers (books, magazines, statistical reports, analytical studies). The creation of an information array in traditional documentary or electronic form completes the process of obtaining the initial data for analytical work. In principle, in the future, this array can be expanded and even transformed, however, the changes introduced should not radically affect the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the entire set of included materials. Otherwise, the information array may lose its systemic qualities and cease to meet the methodological requirements of functional compliance. In order for the experiment to be effective, it is necessary to observe such principles as: · purposefulness - that is, to determine why the experiment is being carried out; its goals should be clearly articulated; · "purity" - presupposes the elimination of the influence of distorting factors; · boundaries - mean a clear framework of the scientific direction, within which the state of the object under study is analyzed; · methodological elaboration - implies already existing knowledge in the studied area. In addition to adhering to these principles, the effectiveness of the experiment is also affected by the existing software, its completeness and quality. The following types of collateral are distinguished: · scientific and methodological - includes scientific justification, theoretical positions and concepts, hypotheses and ideas that need to be tested during the experiment; · organizational - implies the definition of objects of experimentation, participants in the experiment, instructions, rules and procedures for conducting an experiment; · methodical - provides for the development of methodological materials for all stages of the experiment; · personnel and social - determination of the composition of the participants in the experiment, the level of their training and qualifications, compliance with the established requirements, measures to explain the experiment; · informational and managerial - implies the presence of a certain amount of information of a certain quality, and also reveals the process of managing an experiment; · economic - reveals the conditions for using the resources necessary for the experiment: financial, material, labor (issues of stimulating the work of the participants in the experiment). At the stage of theoretical and experimental research, a set of methodological documentation is developed, which is necessary for organizing and performing research, and technical documentation for experimental samples or product models, technological processes, measuring instruments, etc. Theoretical and experimental research is carried out in the required volume, the development and manufacture of objects and material means of research is carried out. The result of an experiment is always a useful category. Even if the innovation does not prove to be effective, the results obtained can serve as a starting point for new directions of work. Processing of the collected information, the results of the experiment. Confirmation or refutation of a hypothesis The processing of the collected information in accordance with the goals and objectives of the study is the main stage of analytical work, at which the comprehension of the material is carried out, the development of new output information, the formation of proposals for their practical application and documentation of the research results. Analysis of information - a set of methods for the formation of factual data, ensuring their comparability, objective assessment and the development of new output information. The purpose of any experiment is to determine the qualitative and quantitative relationship between the studied parameters, or to estimate the numerical value of any parameter. In some cases, the type of relationship between variables is known from the results of theoretical studies. As a rule, the formulas expressing these dependencies contain some constants, the values of which must be determined from experience. Another type of problem is the determination of an unknown functional relationship between variables based on experimental data. Such dependencies are called empirical. It is impossible to unambiguously determine the unknown functional dependence between the variables, even if the experimental results did not have errors. Moreover, one should not expect this, having experimental results containing various measurement errors. Therefore, it should be clearly understood that the purpose of mathematical processing of the experimental results is not to find the true nature of the relationship between the variables or the absolute value of any constant, but to present the observation results in the form of the simplest formula with an estimate of the possible error of its use. Development and testing of the hypothesis. The stage of development of a hypothesis is associated with obtaining logical consequences from it. This is carried out in the following way: it is assumed that the position put forward is true, and then the consequences are deduced from it in a deductive way. The resulting effects must take place if there is an alleged cause. By logical consequences we mean: · thoughts about the circumstances caused by the phenomenon under study; · thoughts about the circumstances that precede the given phenomenon in time, accompany it and follow it; · thoughts about the circumstances that are in direct connection with the investigated phenomenon. Comparison of the consequences obtained from the assumption with the already established facts makes it possible to refute the hypothesis or prove its truth, which is carried out in the process of testing the hypothesis. Direct confirmation (refutation) is that the alleged facts or phenomena in the course of subsequent cognition find confirmation (or refutation) in practice through their direct perception. Logical proofs and refutation of hypotheses are widely used in science. The main ways of logical proof and refutation of hypotheses in science: inductive way - confirmation of a hypothesis or derivation of consequences from it with the help of arguments, including indications of facts and laws; deductive way - derivation of a hypothesis from other, general and proven positions; the inclusion of a hypothesis in the system of scientific knowledge, in which it is consistently consistent with other provisions of this system, as well as demonstration of the predictive power of the hypothesis. Depending on the method of its substantiation, logical proof or refutation can be carried out in direct or indirect form. Direct proof or refutation of a hypothesis is carried out by confirming or refuting the logical consequences obtained by the conclusion with newly discovered facts. Indirect proof or refutation is often used if there are several hypotheses that explain the same phenomenon and are carried out by refuting and excluding all false assumptions, on the basis of which the truth of one remaining assumption is asserted. 5. Drawing up a model of the studied process, phenomenon. Model verification At the stage of forming a theoretical model, it is necessary, based on the complete model, to substantiate the optimal model, in which those aspects of the process are excluded that can be neglected for solving the assigned tasks. As follows from the theory of operations, the degree of understanding of a system is inversely proportional to the number of variables appearing in its description. It should be noted the need for the clearest possible alignment of the solution of model problems with the setting of the final goals of the study (the link "model - goal"), bearing in mind the need to clearly limit the goals set, although one cannot refuse to link the goals of the current solution and long-term planning. In the process of conducting hydrogeological modeling, special attention should be paid to raising the level of qualifications and mutual understanding of users and model creators, which requires well-thought-out organizational solutions for the implementation of business contacts between specialists of various profiles, up to the highest management level. It is especially important to thoroughly substantiate scientific forecasts when studying multifactorial processes that manifest themselves in solving environmental problems. Model experiments A powerful tool for quantitative research is mathematical modeling as a simulation system used to analyze the patterns of the modeled (simulated) process. Since such an operation is usually carried out on computers, the name "numerical", "computational" or "mathematical" experiment is used for it. Close to the content of this kind of experiment is the concept of "simulation of the system", which is defined as the reproduction of the processes occurring in the system, with artificial imitation random variables, on which these processes depend, using the generator of random and pseudo-random numbers. The main direction of the model experiment is to substantiate the optimal models of the studied processes, taking into account the reliability of model solutions of forecasting problems. This justification is carried out by means of a model study of the nature of the development of the modeled process (in time and space) under conditions of uncertainty of the initial information about the parameters of the system. In this direction, the initial operation is the creation of the most complete model of the studied process, which is recognized as the property of a fairly reliable - at least from the point of view of the goal - a reflection of the natural process. Model verification is a verification of its truthfulness and adequacy. In relation to descriptive models, model verification is reduced to comparing the results of calculations by the model with the corresponding reality data - facts and patterns economic development... Regarding normative (including optimization) models, the situation is more complicated: under the conditions of the current economic mechanism, the modeled object is subjected to various control actions that are not provided for by the model; it is necessary to set up a special economic experiment taking into account the requirements of purity, that is, elimination of the influence of these influences, which is a difficult, largely unsolved problem. 6. Model experimentation. Predicting the behavior of the research object An interesting opportunity for the development of the experimental method is the so-called model experimentation. In this case, they are experimenting not with the original, but with its model, a sample similar to the original. The original does not behave as cleanly, exemplarily as the model. The model can be of physical, mathematical, biological or other nature. It is important that manipulations with it make it possible to transfer the information received to the original. Computer simulation is widely used these days. Model experimentation is especially appropriate where the object under study is inaccessible to direct experiment. So, hydro-builders will not build a dam across a turbulent river in order to experiment with it. Before erecting the dam, they will carry out a model experiment at their own institute (with a "small" dam and a "small" river). The most important experimental method is measurement, which provides quantitative data. Measurement A and B assumes: · establishing the qualitative identity of A and B; · introduction of a unit of measurement (second, meter, kilogram, ruble, point); · comparison of A and B with the reading of a device that has the same quality characteristics as A and B; · reading the instrument readings. Thus, a model can serve two purposes: descriptive, if the model serves to explain and better understand the object, and prescriptive, when the model predicts or reproduces the characteristics of the object that determine its behavior. A prescriptive model can be descriptive, but not vice versa. Therefore, the degree of usefulness of the models used in technology and in the social sciences is different. This largely depends on the methods and tools that were used to build the models, and on the difference in the final goals that were set. In technology, models serve as aids to create new or improved systems. And in the social sciences, models explain existing systems. A model suitable for system design purposes should also explain it. 7. Literary design of research materials The literary design of research materials is a laborious and very responsible matter, an integral part of scientific research. To isolate and formulate the main ideas, provisions, conclusions and recommendations is accessible, sufficiently complete and accurate - the main thing that a researcher should strive for in the process of literary design of materials. Not immediately and not everyone succeeds, since the design of the work is always closely related to the refinement of certain provisions, clarification of logic, argumentation and elimination of gaps in substantiating the conclusions made, etc. Much here depends on the level of general development of the researcher's personality, his literary ability and the ability to formulate their thoughts. In the work on the design of research materials, one should adhere to the general rules: · the title and content of chapters, as well as paragraphs should correspond to the research topic and not go beyond its scope. The content of the chapters should cover the topic, and the content of the paragraphs should cover the whole chapter; · initially, having studied the material for writing the next paragraph (chapter), it is necessary to think over its plan, leading ideas, a system of argumentation and fix all this in writing, without losing sight of the logic of the entire work. Then clarify, polish individual semantic parts and sentences, make the necessary additions, rearrangements, remove unnecessary things, carry out editorial and stylistic corrections; · check the formatting of references, compile a reference apparatus and a list of references (bibliography); · do not rush with the final finishing, look at the material after a while, let it "lie down". At the same time, some reasoning and inferences, as practice shows, will appear to be poorly designed, unproven and insignificant. It is necessary to improve or omit them, leaving only what is really necessary; · avoid pseudoscience, games of erudition. Bringing a large number of references, abuse of special terminology make it difficult to understand the thoughts of the researcher, make the presentation unnecessarily complicated. The style of presentation should combine scientific rigor and efficiency, accessibility and expressiveness; · the presentation of the material should be reasoned or polemical, critical, short or detailed, detailed; · before drawing up the final version, conduct approbation of the work: peer review, discussion, etc. Eliminate the shortcomings identified during approbation. List of used literature scientific research experiment 1) Kozhukhar V.M., Workshop on the basics of scientific research. Publishing house "ASV", 2008. - p5. ) Shestakov V.M., (Final lecture of the course "Hydrogeodynamics") ) Krutov V.I. "Fundamentals of scientific research". Publishing house " high school", 1989. - pp. 6, 44, 79, 88. ) Pakhustov B.K., Concepts modern natural science... UMK, Novosibirsk, SibAGS, 2003. ) http://www.google.ru/ ) http://ru.wikipedia.org/ ) http://bookap.info/ TutoringNeed help exploring a topic?
Our experts will advise or provide tutoring services on topics of interest to you. 1.1. The science. The main features and concepts of science. The essence of scientific research and the main forms of scientific research. 1.2. The main systemic signs of scientific research. 1.3. The essence and purpose of the functioning of scientific schools. Topic 2. General research methodology 2.1. Concept and main functions of scientific research methodology. Methodological basis. 2.2. General scientific methodology. 2.3. Specific scientific methodology Topic 3. Modern methods scientific knowledge. 3.1. The concept of a method and research technique. Classification of methods. 3.2. Characteristics of general methods of scientific knowledge. 3.3. Methods of theoretical empirical research. 3.4. Proof of scientific research results. Topic 4. Organization and conduct sociological research. 4.1. The concept and the main stages of sociological research. Research program. 4.2. Types of sociological research: observation, survey, experiment. 4.3. Working with a sample dataset TTheme 1. CONCEPT AND FEATURES OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 1.1. The science. The main features and concepts of science. The essence of scientific research and the main forms of scientific research. Each specialist should have an idea of the methodology and organization of research activities, science and its basic concepts. Science is a sphere of human activity aimed at producing new knowledge about nature, society and thinking. As a specific sphere of human activity, it is the result of the social division of labor, the isolation of mental labor from physical labor, the transformation of cognitive activity into a special area of occupation of a certain group of people. The need for a scientific approach to all types of human activity makes science develop at a faster pace than any other field of activity. The concept of "science" includes both activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge and the result of this activity - the sum of acquired scientific knowledge that serves as the basis for a scientific understanding of the world. Science is still understood as one of the forms of human consciousness. The term "science" is used to name certain areas of scientific knowledge. The regularities of the functioning and development of science, the structure and dynamics of scientific knowledge and scientific activity, the interaction of science with other social institutions and spheres of the material and spiritual life of society are studied by a special discipline - science of science. One of the main tasks of the science of science is the development classification of sciences, which determines the place of each science in common system scientific knowledge, communication of all sciences. The most common is the distribution of all sciences into the sciences of nature, society and thinking. Science that arose at the moment of awareness ignorance, which, in turn, caused the objective necessity of obtaining knowledge. Knowledge - a practice-tested result of cognition of reality, adequate to its reflection in human consciousness. This is an ideal reproduction of the conventional form of generalized ideas about the regular connections of objective reality. The process of movement of human thought from ignorance to knowledge is called knowledge, which is based on the reflection and reproduction of objective reality in the human mind. Scientific knowledge - This is research, which is characterized by its own special goals and objectives, methods of obtaining and testing new knowledge. It reaches the essence of phenomena, reveals the laws of their existence and development, thereby indicating the practical possibilities, ways and means of influencing these phenomena and changes in accordance with their objective nature. Scientific knowledge is designed to illuminate the path of practice, provide theoretical basis to solve practical problems. The basis and driving force of knowledge is practice, it provides science with factual material that requires theoretical comprehension. Theoretical knowledge creates a reliable basis for understanding the essence of the phenomena of objective reality. The dialectic of the cognitive process consists in the contradiction between the limitations of our knowledge and the boundless complexity of objective reality. Cognition is, the result of which is new knowledge of the world. The process of cognition has a two-circuit structure: empirical and theoretical knowledge, which exist in close interaction and interdependence. Cognition boils down to answering several questions, which can be schematically depicted as follows: What? how much? What? Which one? How?- can answer these questions the science. how to do?- gives the answer to this question technique. What to do? is a sphere practice. The answers to the questions determine the immediate goals science - description, explanationand foresight processes and phenomena of objective reality, which constitute the subject of its study on the basis of the laws that it discovers, that is, in a broad sense - the theoretical reproduction of reality. True knowledge exists as a system principles, patterns, laws, basic concepts, scientific facts, theoretical provisions andconclusions. Therefore, true scientific knowledge is objective. However, scientific knowledge can be relative or absolute. Relative knowledge - this is knowledge, which, being an adequate reflection of reality, is distinguished by a certain incomplete coincidence of the image with the object. Absolute knowledge - it is a complete, exhaustive reproduction of generalized representations of an object, which ensures the absolute coincidence of the image with the object. The continuous development of practice makes it impossible to transform knowledge into the absolute, but makes it possible to distinguish objectively true knowledge from erroneous views. Science, as a specific activity, is aimed at obtaining new theoretical and applied knowledge about the laws of development of nature, society and thinking, is characterized by such basic signs: The presence of systematized knowledge (scientific ideas of theories, concepts, laws, patterns, principles, hypotheses, basic concepts, facts); The presence of a scientific problem, object and subject of research; The practical significance of both the phenomenon (process) that is being studied and knowledge about it. Let's consider the basic concepts of science. Scientific idea - intuitive explanation of the phenomenon (process) without intermediate argumentation, without awareness of the entire set of connections, on the basis of which the conclusion is made. It is based on existing knowledge, but it shows previously unnoticed patterns. Science provides for two types of ideas: constructive and destructive, that is, those that have or do not have significance for science and practice. The idea finds its specific materialization in a hypothesis. Hypothesis - scientific assumption put forward to explain any phenomena (processes) or causes that predetermine a given effect. Scientific theory includes hypothesis as the starting point of the search for truth, which helps to significantly save time and effort, purposefully collect and group facts. Distinguish between null, descriptive, explanatory, basic working and conceptual hypotheses. If a hypothesis is consistent with scientific facts, then in science it is called a theory or law. Hypotheses (like ideas) are probabilistic in nature and go through three stages in their development: Accumulation of factual material and making assumptions based on it; Formulation of a hypothesis and justification based on the assumption of an acceptable theory; Verification of the results obtained in practice and, on its basis, the refinement of the hypothesis; If, when checked, the result corresponds to reality, then the hypothesis turns into a scientific theory. The hypothesis is put forward with the hope that it, if not entirely, then at least partially, will become reliable knowledge. Law - internal essential connection of phenomena, which predetermines their natural development. The law, invented through guesswork, must then be logically proven, only in this case it is recognized by science. Science uses judgment to establish the law. Judgment - a thought in which, with the help of the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or denied. A judgment about an object or phenomenon can be obtained either through direct observation of any fact, or indirectly - with the help of inference. Inference - mental operation, with the help of which, from a certain number of given judgments, another judgment is derived, which is in a certain way connected with the original one. Science is a collection of theories. Theory - doctrine, a system of ideas, views, positions, statements aimed at the interpretation of a particular phenomenon. This is not a direct, but an idealized representation of reality. The theory is considered as a set of generalizing provisions that form a science or its section. It acts as a form of synthetic knowledge, within the boundaries of which individual concepts, hypotheses and laws lose their autonomy and turn into elements of an integral system. The following requirements are put forward for the new theory: Adequacy of the scientific theory to the described object; The ability to replace experimental studies with theoretical ones; Completeness of the description of a certain phenomenon of reality; The ability to explain the relationships between different components within the framework of a given theory; Internal consistency of the theory and compliance with its research data. Theory is a system of scientific concepts, principles, provisions, facts. Scientific concept - a system of views, theoretical positions, basic thoughts about the object of research, which are united by a certain main idea. Conceptuality - these are definitions of the content, essence, meaning of what is being discussed. Under the principle in scientific theory, the most abstract definition of an idea is understood. A principle is a rule that has arisen as a result of objectively meaningful experience. Concept - it is a thought reflected in a generalized form. It reflects the essential and necessary signs of objects and phenomena, as well as the relationship. If a concept has entered scientific circulation, it is designated with one word or a set of words is used - terms. The disclosure of the content of a concept is called its definition. The latter can meet two important requirements: Indicate the nearest generic term; Indicate how this concept differs from other concepts. The concept, as a rule, completes the process of scientific research, consolidates the results obtained by the scientist personally in his research. The set of basic concepts is called conceptual apparatus this or that science. Scientific fact - an event or phenomenon that serves as the basis for a conclusion or confirmation. He, which together with others forms the basis of scientific knowledge, reflects the objective properties of phenomena and processes. On the basis of scientific facts, the laws of phenomena are determined, theories are built and laws are derived. The movement of thought from ignorance to knowledge is guided by methodology. Methodology scientific knowledge - the doctrine of the principles, form and methods of research activities. Research reception is a way of applying old knowledge to gain new knowledge. He is a means of obtaining scientific facts. Scientific activity - intellectual creative activity aimed at obtaining and using new knowledge. It exists in different forms; 1) research activities; 2) scientific and organizational activities; 3) scientific and informational activity; 4) scientific pedagogical activity; 5) scientific support activities, etc. Each of these types of scientific activity has its own specific functions, tasks, results of work. Scientific research is carried out within the framework of research activities. Scientific research - purposeful cognition, the results of which act as a system of concepts, laws and theories. There are two forms of scientific research: fundamental and applied. Basic scientific research - scientific theoretical and (or) experimental activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the laws of development and the relationship of nature, society, and man. Applied research - scientific and scientific and technical activities aimed at obtaining and using knowledge for practical purposes. Scientific research is carried out with the aim of obtaining a scientific result. Scientific result - new knowledge obtained in the process of fundamental or applied scientific research and recorded on carriers of scientific information in the form of a scientific report, scientific work, scientific report, scientific report on research work, monographic research, scientific discovery, etc. Scientific and applied result - a new constructive or technological solution, an experimental sample, a completed test that has been introduced or may be introduced into public practice. A scientific and applied result can be in the form of a report, a draft design, design or technological documentation for scientific and technical products, a full-scale sample, etc. The main results of scientific research include: Scientific abstracts; Scientific reports at conferences, meetings, seminars, symposia; Coursework (diploma, master's) work; Reports on research (development; experimental and technological) work; Scientific translations; Dissertation (candidate or doctoral); Deposited manuscripts; Monographs; Science articles; Algorithms and programs; Reports on scientific conferences; Preprints; Textbooks, teaching aids; Bibliographic indexes, etc. Subjects scientific activities are: scientists, researchers, scientific and pedagogical workers, as well as scientific institutions, scientific organizations, higher educational institutions of III-IV levels of accreditation, public organizations in the field of scientific and scientific and technical activities. A significant number of people are engaged in research activities. Those who do this constantly are called researchers, scientists (scientists), scientists. Researcher is called a person who carries out scientific research. Scientist - this is someone who is related to science, develops new knowledge, is a specialist in a particular field of science. Scientist - an individual who conducts fundamental and (or) applied scientific research in order to obtain scientific and (or) scientific and technical results. Scientist - a scientist who, according to the main place of work and, accordingly, the labor agreement (contract) is professionally engaged in scientific, scientific and technical or scientific and pedagogical activities and has the appropriate qualifications, confirmed by the results of attestation. People of science have the appropriate specialty and qualifications, work both on their own and uniting in scientific teams (permanent or temporary), create scientific schools. 1.2. The main systemic signs of scientific research. In development modern society plays an important role scientificinformation, obtained as a result of scientific knowledge. Its receipt, distribution and use are essential for the development of science. Scientific information is disseminated in time and space by certain channels, means, methods. A special place in this system belongs to scientific communication. Scientific communication(NK) - exchange of scientific information (ideas, knowledge, messages) between scientists and specialists. Modern authors of the theory of communication K. Shannon and W. Weaver give the following definition of communication: "These are all actions if one mind affects the other." There are five main elements in the NDT process: 1)communicant - the sender of the message (the person who generates an idea or collects, processes scientific information and transfers it). 2)communicate - message (fixed or non-fixed scientific information, encoded in a certain way using symbols, signs, codes). 3) channel (method of transferring scientific information). 4) recipient - the recipient of the message (the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it in a certain way, reacts to it). 5) Feedback - the recipient's response to the scientific communication received. Scientific communication starts with communicant, which generates a scientific idea or concept. These can be both individual scientists and groups of authors, such as research groups, scientific schools, institutions, institutes, regions or countries. The scientific status of the communicant and the level of his influence on NDT are determined depending on the scientific status of the institution, the availability of a scientific degree, academic title, the number of publications, and the length of scientific work. Outstanding scientists play a special role in communication. Having formulated a scientific idea, the author directly shares it with colleagues, scientific advisor, who help determine the further direction of its development. Then the information is disseminated among a wide range of specialists in the form of a scientific report (message) at conferences, symposia, and is drawn up in the form of a scientific report, preprint or article (in written or electronic form). Documented and / or undocumented scientific information is what is transmitted, i.e. communicate. Scientific messages are most often conveyed through language, images, actions. Images are used as an addition to language communication (graphics, posters). The actions confirm the scientist's verbal findings. Most often, information is transmitted using language - natural (language of human communication) or artificial (language of machine programming). The communicant encodes information using signs, symbols, codes, and recipient decodes (decrypts, translates) information. Scientific communication occurs only on condition that the language of the scientific message is clear to the recipient. Often, researchers cannot use a foreign language publication without knowing the relevant language. The readership can be quite limited if the works are presented in insufficiently common language. In this case, translations help. Between the communicant and the recipient is established communication channel, without which communication is impossible (method of exchange, transmission of information). These are meetings, conferences, radio, television, the Internet, publishing house, editorial office of a journal, library and other channels that provide an opportunity for direct or indirect scientific communication. Scientific communication functions effectively under the condition of existence feedback - the recipient's reactions to the message received. The interest in the message depends on many factors: the content of the problem, scientific idea, accessibility of information, place, time of publication, circulation of the journal (monograph), language, level and style of publication matter. Recipient feedback can be citing, linking, responding, reviewing, writing a review, abstract, articles, including the author's ideas in the relevant discipline as basic knowledge, etc. One of the main indicators of the value of a scientific result is citation index, which determines the number of links to a particular article, author, journal, institution, country. The higher this indicator, the more authoritative the author is, the higher his scientific rating. Links indicate the level of dissemination of an idea, its scientific and practical significance, the level of human knowledge, the real implementation of scientific communication. There are many approaches to classifying scientific communication. It is divided into straight (direct communication of specialists involved in the research process); mediated (communication between scientists through their scientific publications); vertical (between the supervisor and the candidate for a degree); horizontal (connects the applicant with representatives scientific school), etc. However, the most common is the division of scientific communications into formal and informal, documentary and non-documentary, between which a close relationship has been established. Formal NK - exchange of scientific information through specially created structures for the generation, processing and dissemination of scientific knowledge. These are publishing houses, editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, research institutions, universities, radio, television, libraries, information centers, museums, archives, etc. In science of science, formal communication is often considered as the publication of an article in a journal or a scientific monograph and links. Direct citation of one author by another testifies to the creation of a formal channel of communication between them - from the cited author to the one who is citing. If two researchers cite a third, then formal communication is created between the first and third author by citing. The effectiveness of formal NDT is determined by the quantity and quality of published scientific results. Informal NC - This is a communication that is established between the communicant (sender) and the recipient (recipient) through personal contacts, meetings, conversations, telephone conversations, correspondence, etc. The positive aspect of such communication is saving time, ensuring deep understanding. The effectiveness of informal NDT is determined through self-reports, questioning, observation. Some informal exchanges of scientific information become apparent if researchers co-publish the results of their research. Documentary NC - communication mediated by a scientific document, built on the exchange of documented information (ideas, messages, knowledge). Scientific paper - it is the publication of the results of theoretical or experimental research, as well as the preparation of scientific workers for the publication of historical documents and literary texts. It contains scientific information fixed on a material carrier for its transmission in space and time. In the NDT system, a scientific document receives the status communication. It can be presented in the form of published abstracts, the text of a scientific report, an article, a description of the invention, a monograph, a report on research work, a thesis, a dissertation author's abstract, an analytical review, an abstract, etc. Scientific information can be transmitted in the form of a book, brochure, journal , floppy disks, etc. The advantages of such communications: good preservation of scientific information; Ability to study, re-read information multiple times; Thorough preparation; Possibility of communicating to many recipients; Possibility of establishing intellectual property rights. Disadvantages of documentary NDTs: complexity of renewal, volume of information. Non-documentary (oral) NDT - transfer of scientific information in a form that is not fixed on a material carrier. These are telephone conversations public performance, meetings, conferences, symposia, direct communication, conversations, etc. A positive aspect of oral communication is time savings, the possibility of greater agreement between scientists. With the development of computer and telecommunication channels of communication, the possibilities for free remote exchange of scientific ideas are expanding. The author himself can create an original manuscript in electronic form, submit it via the Internet directly to the editorial office of the journal and immediately publish it. Network channels facilitate the rapid formal and informal exchange of information between scientists. Some electronic databases, in addition to articles (abstracts), also contain the addresses of the authors. This allows you to contact the author directly and establish contact with him. The ezine is an integrated NDT site in which authors, editors and publishers work in one system. The scientist must know the advantages and disadvantages of each form of scientific communication, be able to find the best ways to use it and avoid possible problems. 1.3. The essence and purpose of the functioning of scientific schools. Science school (NSh) - an informal creative team of researchers of different generations, united by a common program and style research work that operate under the guidance of a recognized leader. This is an association of like-minded people, which develops problems vital for society under the guidance of a well-known researcher in a certain field, has significant theoretical and practical results of their activities, recognized in scientific circles and the field of production. In the activities of the scientific school, such basic functions: Scientific knowledge production (research and teaching); Dissemination of scientific knowledge (communication); Training of gifted pupils (reproduction). A scientific school has a set of signs, which make it possible to identify such a creative association of researchers. The main feature of the NSh is effective assimilation and study by its members. urgent problems from the scientific directions put forward by the head. Minimum cycle, which gives grounds to record the existence of the school, is three generations of researchers: the founder of the school - his follower - the followers of the follower. The key figure of NSh is her leader, after which the school is named. He is an outstanding, authoritative scientist who develops fundamental and general issues of science, produces ideas, new directions of research that can unite a team of like-minded people around him. Among other signs of NS, the following are distinguished: Long-term scientific productivity, which is characterized by both quantitative (number of publications, references) and qualitative indicators (the leader and members of the NS are the authors of fundamental scientific works, members of the editorial boards of leading professional journals and collections); The breadth of the problem-thematic, geographical, chronological ranges of the functioning of the NS; Preserving the traditions and values of the NS at all stages of its formation and development, ensuring heredity in the areas of scientific research, the style of scientific work; Development of an atmosphere of creativity, innovation, openness to scientific discussions both in the professional press and in communication; The unification of a certain circle of talented scientists in the NS, its constant renewal by gifted pupils - followers of the leader, capable of independent search; Constant communication links (horizontal and vertical) between the teacher and students, ordinary members of the school; Active pedagogical activity (the number of applicants, graduate students, doctoral students, textbooks, teaching aids, the development of new courses); Official recognition by the state (scientific community) of the importance of scientific research of the NS (the number of academicians, doctors, candidates of science, professors, associate professors, honored workers and workers). It is believed that the leader of the NSh is mainly a doctor of sciences. It may include at least three doctors of science in a specialty. The problem of scientific research of students must necessarily be related to the theme of the teacher - the leader of the school. Sometimes they point to geographical location as one of the hallmarks of the school. This formal feature can be used as an additional feature in the process of identifying NS. The most common method for identifying NS is to study the flow of candidate and doctoral dissertations of scientific workers who are part of this informal collective. This approach is legitimate, since it exhibits a teacher-student relationship, which is especially important for NS. It makes it possible to obtain specific results, which are based on quantitative data on the dissertations defended under the guidance of one or another scientist, testifies to the correspondence of the dissertation topics of students to the problems of the leader's dissertation. This method is simple because it reduces the task of identification to the establishment of formal indicators. Scientific schools are the main informal structure of science, making a significant contribution to its development. Their representatives, as a rule, achieve significant scientific results. |
Popular:
New
- Hydrogen bond all examples
- The Barbarian Encyclopedia: Commodus, Emperor Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus Marcus Aurelius son
- History of creation and development
- The history of the emergence of information resources of society
- How the scout Nikolai Kuznetsov died (5 photos)
- Novgorod land (Republic) Culture of the Novgorod land in the 12th century
- Poisoning with arsenic and its salts - a lethal dose for humans, symptoms, treatment
- Losta - railway station Can we overcome the "human factor"
- The essence and principles of collectivization Collectivization in the USSR causes the essence of the results meaning
- The dangers of socialization. Social dangers. Classification of social hazards. Brief description of the main types of social dangers
