Military tactics of Genghis Khan during the conquest of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

Mongol invasion of Kazakhstan and Central Asia (1219-1224), its influence until the subsequent history of these regions.

At the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII centuries. On the territory of Mongolia, a large nomadic state was formed under the rule of one of the representatives of the clan elite - Temuchin. Initially, it was founded in the valleys of the rivers Kerulen and Orkhon, then, as a result of the unification of kindred tribes and the conquest of neighboring countries, the Mongolian state turned into a powerful empire not only in Central Asia, but throughout the world. B 1203 ᴦ. he defeated the Kereit Khanate, then the neighboring Naiman Khanate, in 1207-1211. the peoples of Siberia and Eastern Turkestan were conquered. At 1215ᴦ. Beijing was taken, and by 1217 ᴦ. The Mongols conquered all the lands north of the Yellow River.

B 1206 ᴦ. Temuchin was proclaimed by the All-Mongolian Khagan and received the title of Genghis Khan. The formation of the Mongolian state contributed to the consolidation of previously loosely connected tribes into a single ethnos and to the end of internecine wars.

Conquest of Zhetysu. The state of the Kara-Khitan in Zhetysu and South Kazakhstan was going through a time of political crisis. The cities of Maverannahr were gradually freed from the power of the gur-khan. The Karlyk and Karakhanid rulers began to pass over to the citizenship of Khorezm. B 1207 ᴦ. Kara-Khitan lost Bukhara, then Taraz. At the same time, the gurkhan's relations with the rulers of Koilyk and Almalyk worsened. Having found himself in a difficult situation, the gurkhan Chzhilugu turned to Kuchluk khan Naiman for help.

Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted by the flourishing cities of South Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to carry out his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where the rich cities were located and ruled by the Naiman khan Kuchluk, whom Genghis Khan considered his enemy. In order to conquer Zhetysu and defeat Kuchluk, Genghis Khan sent an army led by one of the commanders - Zhebenoyon.

In 1218ᴦ. detachments of Zhebe, together with the troops of the rulers of Koilyk and Almalyk, opposed Kuchluk. At the same time, the Mongols allowed Muslims to worship in public, which was previously prohibited by the Naimans, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled. The inhabitants of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city was named Gobalyk - "a good city". The road to Khorezm and Maverannahr was opened before Genghis Khan.

War in September 1219ᴦ. began with the siege of Otrar. Dividing his army into several parts, Genghis Khan left one part for the siege of the city, the other, led by his eldest son Zhoshi, sent down the Syrdarya, he himself went to Bukhara.

The siege of Otrar lasted almost five months. Kayir khan, knowing that the Mongols would not spare him, defended himself desperately. The betrayal of one of the commanders named Karadzha hastened the fall of Otrar. Leaving the city gates at night, he surrendered to the Mongols. The besiegers broke into the city through the same gate. Part of the troops and residents locked themselves in the fortress and continued to defend themselves. Only a month later, the Mongols were able to take the citadel. All its defenders were killed, the fortress was destroyed, Kayir Khan was executed, and the walls of Otrar were torn down.

At the beginning of 1221 ᴦ. Mongol troops approached the capital of Khorezm - the city of Urgench, which was taken after a five-month siege. Khorezmshah fled to Iran, to pursue him, Genghis Khan sent a large troop under the command of Zhebe and Subedei. Learning about the death of Muhammad, the Mongols went through the Caucasus to Dasht-i-Kypchak, where they encountered fierce resistance from the Western Kypchak tribes. The Kypchaks and the united army of the Russian principalities met with the Mongols on the Kalka River in May 1223 ᴦ. Due to the inconsistency of actions and disagreements between the princes, the allies were defeated. At the same time, the Mongols did not move deep into Russia and turned back to join the main forces.

Military tactics of Genghis Khan during the conquest of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Military tactics of Genghis Khan in the conquest of Central Asia and Kazakhstan." 2017, 2018.

The conquest of the Khorezm state by Chinggis Khan, which united under his rule by the beginning of the XIII century. Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan, was largely due to its internal weakness. Fight between different groups of nobility and feudal fragmentation obstructed the organization of defense.

Khorezmshah did not trust his vassals and was afraid to call their militias, the vassals were at enmity with each other and with the central government, and together they were afraid of the activity of the masses, did not dare to arm them to fight an external enemy. Therefore, as evidenced by the reports of the Arab historian Ibn al-Athir, as well as Juveini, Rashid-ad-din and other authors of the 13th - early 14th centuries, who wrote in Persian, in Central Asia, like Pi in Iran, as well as in the countries Transcaucasia, the most active fighters against the militias of Genghis Khan were the masses, primarily artisans and the urban poor organized into workshops. The conquerors met with a very strong rebuff, but as a result of passivity or outright betrayal of local feudal lords, isolated centers of resistance were suppressed by the Mongols one by one.

The capture of Samarkand by the troops of Genghis Khan. Miniature of the 16th century.

At first, Genghis Khan exchanged embassies with the kho-rezmshah Mohammed (1200 - 1220), trying to collect as much information as possible about the enemy's forces through his ambassadors and merchants. Then Genghis Khan began active hostilities (1219), using as a pretext the robbery in the city of Otrar on the Syr Darya of a merchant caravan going from Mongolia. Khorezmshah, fearing to unite all the militias of his vassals, dispersed the troops to separate fortified cities and thereby doomed them to passive defense. The Mongol army, led by Genghis Khan, took Otrar, headed across the steppes to Bukhara.

The speed of movement of Genghis Khan's troops did not allow taking the necessary measures to meet with the enemy. Large landowners, merchants and the highest Muslim clergy, fearing for their wealth and not trusting the masses, took the path of betrayal. Due to their betrayal at the beginning of 1220

Bukhara, Samarkand and other cities of the Zarafshan valley were captured. Serious resistance was shown in Jand and especially in Khujand, where his heroic defender Timur-Melik, one of the few military leaders who showed genuine staunchness and great military ability, came forward. Khorezmshah Muhammad, frightened by the successes of Genghis Khan, fled to Iran under the pretext of gathering a new army, but then took refuge on one of the islands of the Caspian Sea, where he died at the end of 1220. After a long and heroic defense of Merv and Urgench, their population took these cities and destroyed. By 1221, all of Central Asia was captured by the Mongol conquerors.

The consequences of the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongols were catastrophic. The remarkable irrigation systems of the Merv oasis, Khorezm and other regions were destroyed.

Urgench, Merv, Termez and other cities lay in ruins. For the management of agricultural areas of Ma-verannahr great khan Ogedei, by agreement with the ulus khan Chagatay, appointed the rich Khorezm merchant Mahmud Yalavach, who was in the service of Genghis Khan, who played the main role in the aforementioned embassies of Chinggis Khan to the rezmshah Muhammad. The descendants of Mahmud Yalavach, who became feudal lords, ruled the agricultural areas of Maverannakhr until 1311. They tried to rely on the surviving local feudal nobility and Muslim clergy, as well as on the wealthy merchants, which quickly reconciled with Mongol rule. Chagatai Khan and his successors in the Semirechye steppes, preserving their nomadic way of life. The domination of the nomads had a disastrous effect on the economy and culture of the Semirechye. During the XIII century. here agricultural oases and cities almost disappeared, the whole country turned into a steppe.

The conquerors established cruel forms of feudal exploitation of the conquered sedentary working population. The peasants and artisans who remained in the cities were crushed by enormous taxes and duties, some were enslaved. They worked in state workshops on meager rations, receiving only bread daily and only a little meat three times a week.

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In 1207-1209 The Mongols subjugated the tribes living in the Yenisei valley and East Turkestan (Buryats, Yakuts, Uighurs, Tungus), defeated the Tangut kingdom in Northwestern China. In 1211, the main forces of the Mongols, having passed the Gobi steppe, invaded China, the position in which at that time was favorable for the conquerors.

China only by the 8th century overcame the consequences of the crisis that gripped it during the Great Migration. According to the census of 754, the taxable population has recovered in the country, amounting to 52.88 million people. Science and technology developed. Woodcut was invented - the printing of books from engraved boards. Gained worldwide fame

Chinese porcelain. Large state-owned workshops arose, some of which employed up to 500 people. In the X century, a compass appeared, which soon became known to Arab merchants, and through them to Europeans. Gunpowder began to be used in the 11th century.

At the same time, with the restoration of a single, centrally controlled empire (it was named after the ruling dynasty, from 618 to 907 - Tang, from 960 to 1279 - Song), traditional problems for China revived. The arbitrariness of provincial governors, officials, extortions from the ruining peasantry, which fell into dependence on the usurers, and the growth of large landowners were the cause of frequent peasant uprisings. They were combined with the raids of the nomads and the attacks of the Manchu tribes.

At the beginning of the 12th century, the strengthened Manchu Jurchen tribes began a war against China. It went extremely badly for the Song Empire, which in 1142 was forced to admit the loss of its entire territory north of the Yangtze River and pay tribute to the victors.

The power of the conquerors over Northern China, where the Jurchens created their own state, called Jin, was fragile. It was weakened by peasant uprisings and dissatisfaction with the local nobility. Nevertheless, the attempt of the Song Empire in 1206 to regain the lost lands ended in failure.

The Jurchens, who did not enjoy support in the provinces of China they had conquered, were unable to organize a defense against the Mongols. Having seized the central provinces of the Jin state, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia in 1216 with abundant booty and many slaves. Among them were Chinese craftsmen who knew how to make siege machines.

In 1218, the Mongols began a campaign in Central Asia, most of which at the beginning of the 13th century was part of the vast state of Khorezm, which also owned the lands of Northern Iran and Afghanistan. Numerous troops of Khorezm, which was a very fragile, multi-tribal public education were scattered across the garrisons. Shah of Khorezm Muhammad(rules in 1200- 1220) more than conquerors, he was afraid of his own subjects and military leaders and was unable to organize serious resistance. The largest cities of Khorezm - Urgench, Bukhara, Samarkand, Merv, Herat - were seized by the Mongols in turn. The townspeople were mercilessly beaten, many were driven into slavery.

In 1222, part of the Mongol forces invaded the Caucasus. They defeated the Georgian troops, defeated the Alans, Lezgins, Circassians, reached the Crimea and attacked the Polovtsi, who turned to the Russian princes for help. In 1223 in the battle on the river Kapke Russian squads first encountered the Mongols.

The inconsistency of the actions of the Russian princes, the flight of the Polovtsians from the battlefield allowed the Mongols to achieve victory. However, not daring to continue the war with the new enemy, they retreated deep into the steppes of Asia.

Mongol conquest of Central Asia

After the resounding victories won in Central Asia, the Mongol nobility turned their thoughts to the conquest of East Turkestan, Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The Mongolian state separated from the Khorezmshah empire a buffer possession headed by Kuchluk Khan. He was the leader of the Naimans who fled to the west as a result of the defeat in 1204 from the army of Temuchin. Kuchluk went to the Irtysh valley, where he united with the Merkit khan Tokhtoa-beki. However, after another defeat in 1205, Kuchluk with the remnants of the Naimans and Kereites fled to the valley of the river. Chu. As a result of a long struggle with the local Turkic tribes and Kara-Kitays, he established himself in East Turkestan and South Semirechye. However, in 1218 a huge Mongol army under the command of Jebe Noyon defeated the troops of Kuchluk Khan. Genghis Khan, having conquered East Turkestan and South Semirechye, came close to the borders of the Khorezmshah state, which included Central Asia and most of Iran.

After the Mongols seized a large territory of the Jin empire, Khorezmshah Muhammad II (1200-1220) sent his ambassadors to the court of Genghis Khan. The main purpose of this diplomatic mission was to obtain information about the armed forces and further military plans of the Mongols. Genghis Khan favorably received the envoys from Khorezm, expressing hope for the establishment of intensive trade relations with the Muslim East. He ordered to convey to Sultan Muhammad that he considers him the ruler of the West, and himself - the ruler of Asia. After that, he sent a response embassy to Urgench - the capital of the Khorezmshah state. The formidable warrior proposed through his ambassadors to conclude an agreement on peace and trade between the two world powers.

In 1218, the Mongols equipped a large trade caravan to Central Asia, carrying many expensive goods and gifts. However, upon arrival in the border town of Otrar, the caravan was plundered and killed. This became a convenient pretext for organizing a grandiose campaign of the Mongol army. In the fall of 1219, Genghis Khan moved his army from the banks of the Irtysh to the west. In the same year, it invaded Maverannahr.

The news of this alarmed the Sultan's court in Urgench. The urgently assembled Supreme Council of State was unable to work out a reasonable plan of military action. Shihab ad-din Khivaki, the closest associate of Muhammad II, proposed to gather the people's militia and meet the enemy on the banks of the Syr Darya with all military forces. Other plans for military operations were proposed, but the sultan chose the tactics of passive defense. Khorezmshah and the dignitaries and commanders who supported him, underestimating the siege art of the Mongols, relied on the fortress of the cities of Maverannahr. The Sultan decided to concentrate the main forces on the Amu Darya, reinforcing them with militias from neighboring regions. Muhammad and his commanders, seated in the fortresses, hoped to attack the Mongols after they scattered across the country in search of prey. However, this strategic plan did not justify itself, which led to the death of thousandths of the rural and urban population of Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan.

The huge army of Genghis Khan reached Otrar in the fall of 1219 and after a five-month siege captured it (1220). From here the Mongols moved forward in three directions. One of the detachments under the command of Jochi Khan set out to capture cities in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya. The second detachment moved to conquer Khojent, Benaket and other points of Maverannahr. The main forces of the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan himself and his youngest son, Tului, headed for Bukhara.

Mongolian army as if fire tornado hit the cities and villages of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Everywhere they met with resistance from ordinary peasants, artisans, shepherds. The population of Khujand, led by Emir Timur Malik, put up heroic resistance to the foreigners.

At the beginning of 1220, after a short siege, Genghis Khan took, destroyed and burned Bukhara. Most of the townspeople, with the exception of the local nobility that went over to the side of the conquerors and some of the captured artisans, were killed. The inhabitants who accidentally escaped the massacre were mobilized into the militia to carry out siege work.

In March 1220, the hordes of Genghis Khan appeared near Samarkand, where a strong garrison of the Khorezmshah was concentrated. However, the city was taken, destroyed and plundered clean.

The defenders of Samarkand were killed; only some of the skilled artisans escaped this fate, but were driven into slavery. Soon the entire Maverannahr fell under the rule of the Mongols.

The resulting critical situation required urgent and decisive measures, but the weak-willed sultan and his closest associates did nothing to organize a rebuff to the enemy. Distraught with fear, they sowed panic, sending orders everywhere that civilians should not intervene in hostilities. Khorezmshah decided to flee to Iraq. Genghis Khan sent a detachment of the Mongol army to pursue Muhammad, who had gone to Nishapur, and from there to Qazvin. The Mongolian cavalry quickly moved in the footsteps of the Khorezmshah to North Khorasan. The detachments of Jebe, Subedai and Toguchar-noyon captured Nisa and other cities and fortresses of Khorasan and Iran in 1220. Fleeing from the persecution of the Mongols, the Khorezmshah crossed over to a deserted island in the Caspian, where he died in December 1220.

In late 1220 - early 1221, Genghis Khan sent his generals to conquer Khorezm. The remnants of the Sultan's army, which consisted mainly of the Kipchaks, were concentrated here at that time. In Khorezm were the sons of Khorezmshah Muhammad, Ak-sultan and Ozlag-sultan, who did not want to cede power to their elder brother, Jalal ad-din. The forces of the Khorezmians were divided into two camps, which made it easier for the Mongols to seize the country. As a result of sharp disagreements with the brothers, Jalal ad-din was forced to leave Khorezm, he crossed the Karakum Desert and went to Iran, and from there to Afghanistan. While in Herat, and then in Ghazni, he began to gather combat-ready anti-Mongol forces.

At the beginning of 1221, the army of Genghis Khan under the command of the princes Jochi, Ogedei and Chagatai captured almost the entire left-bank part of the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. Mongol detachments began the siege of Urgench, the capture of which was given special importance by Genghis Khan. The blockade of the city for six months yielded no results. Only after the assault was Urgench captured, destroyed, and its remains were flooded by the waters of the Amu Darya (April 1221).

Jalal ad-din, who gathered a large army, offered fierce resistance to the Mongols. In the summer of 1221, he defeated a 30,000-strong Mongol army in a battle in the Pervan steppe. Chinggis Khan, concerned about the successes of Jalal ad-din and the rebels in Khorasan, personally opposed him. Jalal ad-din was defeated in a battle on the banks of the river. Indus went deep into India, where, however, did not receive the support of local feudal rulers, in particular the Delhi sultan Shams ad-din Iltutmysh. Mongol troops, meanwhile, suppressed popular uprisings and again took possession of North Khorasan.

In October 1224, the main contingent of Genghis Khan's army crossed the Amu Darya and moved to Mongolia. One of the important reasons for her departure to Central Asia was the uprising of the inhabitants of Tangut. Genghis Khan transferred the affairs of administration (primarily tax) of Central Asia to the Khorezm merchant Mahmud Yalovach (his heirs performed these functions until the beginning of the 14th century). The conquerors installed their representatives of power, or chief rulers (daruga) in the conquered areas of the region; military garrisons were kept in cities and fortresses.

Taking advantage of the departure of Genghis Khan to Mongolia, Jalal ad-din returned from India to Iran. His power was recognized by the local rulers - Fars, Kerman and Persian Iraq. In 1225 he took Tabriz and announced the restoration of the state of the Khorezmshahs. With the support of the city militia, Jalal ad-din won a victory over the Mongols near Isfahan in 1227, although he himself suffered heavy losses. At the same time, for a number of years, he made campaigns against the local feudal rulers of Transcaucasia and Western Asia. Jalal ad-din was a brave commander, but did not have the flexibility of a politician. With his ambitious behavior and predatory attacks, he turned many members of the local nobility and the general population against him. In 1231, unable to withstand the dominance of the Khorezmians, artisans and the urban poor of Ganja rose up. Jalal ad-din suppressed the uprising, but a coalition of the rulers of Georgia, the Rum Sultanate, and the Akhlat Emirate was formed against him.

After the death of Genghis Khan (1227), at the kurultai of 1229, his son Ogedei (1229-1241) was elevated to the throne of the Mongol Empire. Continuing the aggressive policy of his father, the great khan (kaan) ordered to move a huge army to Khorasan and Iran. The Mongol army under the command of Noyon Chormagun marched against Jalal ad-din. Having devastated Khorasan, she entered the borders of Iran. Under the onslaught of the Mongols, Jalal ad-din retreated to southern Kurdistan along with the remnants of his troops. In 1231 he was killed near Diyarbakir. The death of Jalal ad-din opened the way for the Mongols to the depths of the countries of the Near and Middle East.

In 1243, Khorasan and the regions of Iran captured by Chormagun were transferred to Emir Argun by order of Ogedei-kaan. He was appointed ruler (baskak) in the region almost completely devastated by the Mongols. Argun made an attempt to establish economic life and restore the rural settlements and cities of Khorasan. However, such a policy met with resistance from the Mongol steppe nobility, accustomed to plunder.

The Mongol conquest dealt a terrible blow to the development of the productive forces of the conquered countries. Huge masses of people were exterminated, and those left alive were turned into slaves. "The Tatars," wrote the 13th century historian Ibn al-Athir, "did not take pity on anyone, but beat women and babies, ripped open the womb of pregnant women and killed the embryos." Rural settlements and cities became ruins, and some of them lay in ruins at the beginning of the XIV century. Agricultural oases in most regions have been converted into nomadic pastures and encampments. Local cattle-breeding tribes also suffered from the conquerors. Plano Carpini wrote in the 40s of the 13th century that they were "also exterminated by the Tatars and live in their land, and those who remained were turned into slavery." The rise in the proportion of slavery under the Mongols led to a social regression in the conquered countries. The naturalization of the economy, the strengthening of the role of cattle breeding at the expense of agriculture, the decline in domestic and international trade led to a general decline.

The countries and peoples conquered by the Mongols were divided among the offspring of Genghis Khan. Each of them was allocated an ulus (inheritance) with a certain number of troops and dependent people. Tului, the youngest son of Genghis Khan, according to custom, received Mongolia as his inheritance - the native possession (yurts) of his father. He was given to subordinate 101 thousand soldiers out of 129 thousand people in the regular army. Ogedei, the third son of Genghis Khan, was allocated an ulus in Western Mongolia with a center on the upper Irtysh and Tarbagatai. After enthronement in 1229, he settled in Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire. The heirs of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, were given the lands located to the west of the Irtysh and "from the borders of Kayalyk (in Semirechye) and Khorezm to the places of Saksin and Bulgars (on the Volga), up to the limits where the hooves of Tatar horses reached." In other words, this lot included Northern part Semirechye and Eastern Dashti Kipchak, including the Lower Volga region. The borders of the Dzhuchiev ulus were expanded during the reign of Batu Khan, who made a campaign in Kama Bulgaria, Russia and Central Europe. After the formation of the Golden Horde, the Lower Volga region became the center of the Jochid ulus. Chagatai, the second son of Genghis Khan, received from his father 4 "darkness" (or tumen, Mong. "10,000", as well as "countless numbers"), including the territories of the Barlas and Kungrat tribes, and lands from the Southern Altai and the r. Or to the Amu Darya. His possessions covered East Turkestan, a significant part of Semirechye and Maverannahr. The main territory of his ulus was called Il-Alargu, the center of which was the city of Almalyk.

Thus, a significant part of Central Asia and Eastern Kazakhstan became part of Chagatai's possessions. However, his power extended directly to the nomadic Mongols and the steppe Türkic-speaking tribes conquered by them, the actual government in the western regions of the Chagatai ulus was carried out according to the order of Chinggis Khan by Mahmud Yalovach. Choosing Khujand as his residence, he ruled in the province with the help of military contingents of Mongolian Baskaks and Darugachi (or Daruga).

The situation of the sedentary population of Maverannahr after the invasion of Genghis Khan was very difficult. The domination of foreigners was accompanied by acts of gross violence, extortion and robbery of civilians. The Mongol aristocracy was helped in this by the Central Asian nobility, who went over to the side of the conquerors. The dominance of newcomers and local feudal lords led to an uprising of the masses of Bukhara. In 1238, the villagers of Tarab, one of the villages in the vicinity of Bukhara, rose to fight. The rebels were led by the Sith maker Mahmoud Tarabi. Gathering peasant detachments, he entered Bukhara and occupied the palace of the Sadr dynasty that ruled the city. However, the rebels were soon defeated, Mahmud Tarabi was killed in a battle with the Mongol army. After that, Mahmud Yalovach was recalled to Karakorum and removed from his post. His son Masud-bey was appointed in his place.

In the late 40s - early 50s of the XIII century. fierce strife and a struggle for power began between the descendants of Genghis Khan. Possessing significant military forces and economic might, they strove for independence in every possible way. This process was also based on further development specific feudal system in the Mongol Empire. The absence of strong economic, political and cultural ties, the multi-tribal nature of the empire, the struggle of the conquered peoples against their oppressors led to the disintegration of the vast Mongolian state into independent states.

Chagatai, being the eldest in the Chinggisid family, enjoyed great authority and influence, and Khan Ogedei did not make important decisions without his consent. Chagatai appointed Kara Hulagu, the son of his brother, Matugen, as his heir. After the death of Ogedei in 1241, and then Chagatai, as a result of acute confrontation in 1246, Guyuk (1246-1248) became the great khan. Yesu Mongke was proclaimed the ruler of the Chagatai ulus. Kara Hulagu was removed from power by the united heirs of the Chagatai and Ogedei uluses. However, after the death of Guyuk, the flame of a new internecine strife flared up. In the course of a fierce struggle between the descendants of Ogedei and Tului, Mongke (1251-1259), the eldest son of Tului, came to power. Many princes from the Chagatai and Ogedei clans were executed. Orkina, the widow of Kara Hulagu (died in 1252), became the ruler of the Chagatai ulus.

Mongol Empire in the middle of the XIII century. was actually divided between the heirs of Tului and Jochi. The border lines of the possessions of Batu, the son of Jochi, and the great khan Möngke, passed for a long time. Chu and Talas. Semirechye was under the rule of Mongke, and Maverannahr for a time fell into the hands of the Jochids.

In 1259, after the death of Mongke, there was a new round of feudal strife in the Mongol state, culminating in the proclamation of Kublai, Mongke's brother, the supreme ruler of the Mongol Empire (1260).

The Chinggisid state was viewed as the property of the ruling dynasty and its numerous representatives. The great Kaan had broad prerogatives, combining in one person military, legislative and administrative-judicial power. The kurultai, a council of nomadic nobility under the auspices of the Chinggisids, remained in the political structure of the Mongolian state. Formally, the kurultai was considered the supreme body of power at which the supreme khan was elected. Kurultai resolved issues of peace and war, domestic policy, considered important disputes and litigations. He gathered, however, in fact, only to approve decisions prepared in advance by the kaan and his closest circle. The councils of the Mongol nobility met until 1259 and ended only with the death of Mongke-khan.

The Mongol Empire, despite the existence of the supreme khan's power, actually consisted of a number of independent and semi-dependent possessions, or appanages (uluses). Ulus rulers - Chinggisids - received income and taxes from their estates, maintained their own court, troops, and civil administration. However, they were usually not allowed to interfere in the management of agricultural regions, where the supreme khans appointed special officials.

The ruling stratum of the Mongol uluses consisted of the highest nobility, headed by the direct and lateral branches of the Chinggisid dynasty. Civil administration in the estates was carried out over the sedentary population with the help of the old local bureaucracy. In the state of Chagataids under Masud-bek, a monetary reform was carried out, which played an important role in the recovery of the economy of Central Asia.

In some cases, civil administration in the Chagataid state was carried out with the help of the old dynasts who bore the title "malik". There were such rulers in a number of large regions and cities of Maverannahr, in particular in Khojent, Fergana, Otrar. In the conquered regions and cities of Central Asia and East Turkestan, the Mongolian authorities proper - daruga - were also appointed. Initially, their power was limited to the execution of a military function on the ground, but over time, their prerogatives have expanded significantly. Daruga began to carry out the duties of a population census, recruiting troops, setting up a postal service, collecting and delivering taxes to the khan horde.

The bulk of the nomadic and sedentary population of the Chagatai ulus was at various stages of the feudal system. The most developed feudal relations were in the agricultural areas, which retained the former socio-economic institutions. The nomadic population, which consisted of the Mongol proper and conquered Turkic-speaking tribes, was at an early feudal stage of development with strong remnants of the tribal system. Nomads were required to carry out military service, performed various duties and paid taxes in favor of their masters. The nomads were divided into tens, hundreds, thousands and "darkness", to which they were attached. According to the codes of Genghis Khan, they did not have the right to transfer from one ruler or leader to another. Unauthorized passage or flight was punishable by death.

Mongol arats paid taxes in favor of their nobility and the supreme khan's court. During the reign of Mongke, they collected the so-called purchase order in the amount of 1 head of cattle from 100 heads of animals. Kupchur was paid by peasants, as well as by artisans and townspeople. In addition, the agricultural population contributed land tax - kharaj and other taxes and fees. The villagers paid, in particular, a special tax in kind (tagar) for the upkeep of the Mongol army. They also had to bear the duty of maintaining post stations (pits). The collection of numerous taxes was weighed down by a predatory ransom system that ruined a lot of farmers and pastoralists.

At the beginning of the XIV century. the importance of the Chagataid clan in Central Asia and the Seven Rivers grew rapidly. The Chagataid rulers strove for the centralization of power and for further rapprochement with the sedentary nobility of Maverannahr. Kebek Khan (1318-1326) tried to restore city life, to establish agriculture and trade. He carried out a monetary reform that copied a similar reform of the Hulaguid ruler of Iran, Gazan Khan. The silver coin, which he introduced into circulation in 1321, became known as "kebeks". In violation of the ancient traditions of the nomadic Mongols, Kebek Khan rebuilt in the valley of the river. Kashkadarya palace (Mong. Karshi), around which the city of Karshi grew up. These innovations met with stubborn resistance from the backward patriarchal strata of the Mongol aristocracy. Therefore, the reforms of Kebek Khan were generally limited.

Under Kebek Khan's brother and successor, Tarmashirin (1326-1334), the next step was taken towards rapprochement with the local nobility - the proclamation of Islam as the official religion. Tarmashirin fell victim to the nomadic Mongols who adhered to patriarchal traditions and pagan beliefs.

In the late 40s - 50s of the XIV century. The Chagatai ulus split into a number of independent feudal possessions. The western regions of the state were divided between the leaders of the Turkic-Mongol tribes (Barlas, Dzhelairov, Arlat, Kauchin). The northeastern territories of the Chagatai ulus became isolated in the 40s of the XIV century. into an independent state of Moghulistan. It included the lands of Eastern Turkestan, the Irtysh and Balkhash steppes. In the west, the borders of this state reached the middle reaches of the Syradya and Tashkent oasis, in the south - the Fergana Valley, and in the east - Kashgar and Turfan.

The main population of Moghulistan consisted of a cattle-breeding population - the descendants of mixed Turkic-Mongol tribes. Among them were the Kangly, Kereits, Arlats, Barlas, Duglats, from among whom the local Khan clan originated. In 1348 to know eastern regions She chose the Chagatai ulus as the supreme khan Togluk-Timur. Relying on the top of the Duglat and other clans, he subdued Semirechye and part of Eastern Turkestan. Togluk-Timur converted to Islam, enlisted the support of the Muslim clergy and began a struggle for the possession of Maverannahr. In 1360 he invaded the Syr Darya valley from Semirechye, but disagreements between the commanders interrupted his further advance into the depths of the Central Asian Mesopotamia. In the early spring of the next year, Togluk-Timur again set out on a campaign against Maverannahr, where Timur, who had previously received the city of Kesh (Shakhrisabz) from Togluk-Timur, went to the side of the Mongols. The Moghulistan army occupied Samarkand and advanced in the south to the mountain ranges of the Hindu Kush. However, the power of Togluk-Timur in Maverannahr was short-lived. Soon he returned to Moghulistan, which was used by local nomadic leaders to overthrow his son, Ilyas-Khoja, who was left in the province as governor. Timur also opposed him in alliance with the Chagataid, the ruler of Balkh, Emir Hussein. Ilyas-Khoja fled to Moghulistan, where turmoil began after the death of Togluk-Timur.

In 1365 Ilyas-Khoja attacked Maverannahr and defeated Hussein and his ally Timur in a battle on the banks of the Syr Darya. Having plundered the cities and villages of Tashkent and other oases, the Mogulistan army headed for Samarkand. Ilyas-Khoja was unable to capture the city, its defense was organized by the inhabitants themselves, at the head of which were also the Serbedars. Ilyas-Khoja was forced to go back to Semirechye.

Bibliography

1. History of the East; Publishing company "Eastern Literature" RAS, Moscow, 1997

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the siteworld-history.ru/

At the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII centuries. On the territory of Mongolia, a large nomadic state was formed under the rule of one of the representatives of the clan elite - Temuchin. Initially, it was founded in the valleys of the rivers Kerulen and Orkhon, then, as a result of the unification of kindred tribes and the conquest of neighboring countries, the Mongol state turned into a powerful empire not only in Central Asia, but throughout the world. In 1203 he defeated the Kereitsk, then the neighboring Naiman Khanate, in 1207-1211. the peoples of Siberia and Eastern Turkestan were conquered. In 1215. Beijing was taken, and by 1217 the Mongols conquered all the lands north of the Yellow River.
In 1206 Temuchin was proclaimed an All-Mongolian kagan and received the title of Genghis Khan. The formation of the Mongolian state contributed to the consolidation of previously loosely connected tribes into a single ethnos and to the end of internecine wars.
Conquest of Zhetysu. The state of the Kara-Khitan in Zhetysu and South Kazakhstan was going through a time of political crisis. The cities of Maverannahr were gradually freed from the power of the gur-khan. The Karlyk and Karakhanid rulers began to pass over to the citizenship of Khorezm. In 1207, the Kara-Khitan lost Bukhara, then Taraz. In addition, the gurkhan's relations with the rulers of Koilyk and Almalyk worsened. Having found himself in a difficult situation, the gurkhan Chzhilugu turned to Kuchluk khan Naiman for help.
Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted by the flourishing cities of South Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to carry out his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where the rich cities were located and ruled by the Naiman khan Kuchluk, whom Genghis Khan considered his enemy. In order to conquer Zhetysu and defeat Kuchluk, Genghis Khan sent an army led by one of the commanders - Zhebenoyon.
In 1218. Zhebe's detachments, together with the troops of the rulers of Koilyk and Almalyk, opposed Kuchluk. At the same time, the Mongols allowed the Muslims to worship in public, which was previously prohibited by the Naimans, which contributed to the transition of the entire sedentary population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled. The inhabitants of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city was named Gobalyk - "a good city". The road to Khorezm and Maverannahr was opened before Genghis Khan.
... War in September 1219 began with the siege of Otrar. Dividing his army into several parts, Genghis Khan left one part for the siege of the city, the other, led by his eldest son Zhoshi, sent down the Syrdarya, he himself went to Bukhara.
The siege of Otrar lasted almost five months. Kayir khan, knowing that the Mongols would not spare him, defended himself desperately. The betrayal of one of the commanders named Karadzha hastened the fall of Otrar. Leaving the city gates at night, he surrendered to the Mongols. The besiegers broke into the city through the same gate. Part of the troops and residents locked themselves in the fortress and continued to defend themselves. Only a month later, the Mongols were able to take the citadel. All its defenders were killed, the fortress was destroyed, Kayir Khan was executed, and the walls of Otrar were torn down.
At the beginning of 1221, Mongol troops approached the capital of Khorezm - the city of Urgench, which was taken after a five-month siege. Khorezmshah fled to Iran, to pursue him, Genghis Khan sent a large troop under the command of Zhebe and Subedei. Learning about the death of Muhammad, the Mongols went through the Caucasus to Dasht-i-Kypchak, where they encountered fierce resistance from the Western Kypchak tribes. The Kypchaks and the united army of the Russian principalities met with the Mongols on the Kalka River in May 1223. Due to the inconsistency of actions and disagreements between the princes, the allies were defeated. However, the Mongols did not advance deep into Russia and turned back to join the main forces.
Completion of the conquest. Formation of uluses. Thus, as a result of hostilities 1219-1241gg. the territories of Desht-i-Kipchak and Maverannahr became part of the empire of Genghis Khan and were divided between his sons. He gave the land of Saryarka to the eldest son Zhoshi and further to the west, to the south - to the Caspian and The Aral seas... From the Central Asian possessions, its ulus included the lower reaches of the Amu Darya - northern Khorezm. The headquarters was located in the Ertis valley. The second son of Genghis Khan, Shagatay, got Maverannahr, Zhetysu, his headquarters was in the Ili valley. To the third son Ogedei, Genghis Khan allocated Western Mongolia and Tarbagatai, his headquarters was located near the present Chuguchak. Tuli inherited his father's ulus - Mongolia proper.

"Tatar-Mongols" - the term came from the Kypchaks, they borrowed from the Chinese. Genghis Khan was born into the family of a wealthy Noyon in 1162. At the age of 20, thanks to his cunning, he gathers an army and returns his lands. At a meeting in 1206 he was elected as a khan. Father is a Turk, mother is a Konyrat clan. Most of warriors - Kypchaks. Sons - Jochi, Chagatai, Ogedei, Tule. Conquer the Yenisei Kirghiz, Buryats, Uighurs, Western countries 1219 - campaigns on the territory of Kazakhstan. The reason is the Otrar disaster. Semirechye is conquered without resistance. On the territory of South Kazakhstan, the population resists, as a result of which violence and terror. Defense of Otrar (5 months) and Sygnak (7 days). By the spring of 1221, the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongols was completed. Military operations on the territory of Kazakhstan 1219-1224 The troops led by Batu moved in 1237 to conquer Eastern Europe. Three ulus: Jochi - steppe part, Chagatai - South and South-East, Ogedeya - part of Semirechye. The death of Genghis Khan in 1227 - the collapse of the empire into several independent states.