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Russia under the Mongol-Tatar yoke existed extremely humiliatingly. She was completely subordinate both politically and economically. Therefore, the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia, the date of standing on the Ugra River - 1480, is perceived as the most important event in our history. Although Russia became politically independent, the payment of tribute in a smaller amount continued until the times of Peter the Great. The complete end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke - the year 1700, when Peter the Great canceled payments to the Crimean khans. Mongol armyIn the XII century, the Mongol nomads united under the rule of the cruel and cunning ruler Temuchin. He mercilessly suppressed all obstacles to unlimited power and created a unique army that won victory after victory. He, creating great empire, was named by his nobility Genghis Khan. Having conquered East Asia, the troops of the Mongols reached the Caucasus and Crimea. They destroyed the Alans and Polovtsians. The remnants of the Polovtsians turned to Russia for help. First meetingThere were 20 or 30 thousand soldiers in the Mongol army, it is not precisely established. They were led by Jebe and Subedei. They stopped at the Dnieper. And at this time, Khotyan persuaded the Galich prince Mstislav Udaliy to oppose the invasion of the terrible cavalry. He was joined by Mstislav Kievsky and Mstislav Chernigovsky. According to various sources, the general Russian army numbered from 10 to 100 thousand people. A council of war took place on the banks of the Kalki River. A single plan was not worked out. made one. He was supported only by the remnants of the Polovtsi, but during the battle they fled. The princes who did not support Galician still had to fight the Mongols who attacked their fortified camp. 
The battle lasted three days. Only by cunning and a promise not to take anyone prisoner did the Mongols enter the camp. But they did not keep their words. The Mongols tied the Russian governors and the prince alive and covered them with boards and sat on them and began to feast on the victory, enjoying the groans of the dying. So they died in agony Kiev prince and his entourage. The year was 1223. The Mongols, without going into details, went back to Asia. They will be back in thirteen years. And all these years in Russia there was a fierce bickering between the princes. She completely undermined the strength of the Southwestern principalities. InvasionGenghis Khan's grandson Batu with a huge half-million army, having conquered the Polovtsian lands in the south in the east, approached the Russian principalities in December 1237. His tactic was not to give a big battle, but to attack individual units, smashing everyone one by one. Approaching the southern borders of the Ryazan principality, the Tatars demanded tribute from him with an ultimatum: a tenth of horses, people and princes. There were barely three thousand soldiers in Ryazan. They sent for help to Vladimir, but no help came. After six days of the siege, Ryazan was taken. 
The inhabitants were destroyed, the city was destroyed. This was the beginning. The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke will take place in two hundred and forty difficult years. Kolomna was next. There the Russian army was almost all killed. Moscow lies in the ashes. But before that, someone, who dreamed of returning to their native places, buried it in a treasure of silver jewelry. It was found by accident when construction was underway in the Kremlin in the 90s of the XX century. Vladimir was next. The Mongols did not spare either women or children and destroyed the city. Then Torzhok fell. But spring was coming, and, fearing the thaw, the Mongols moved south. Northern swampy Russia did not interest them. But on the way was a tiny defending Kozelsk. The city fiercely resisted for almost two months. But reinforcements came to the Mongols with battering machines, and the city was taken. All the defenders were cut out and left no stone unturned from the town. So, all of Northeastern Russia by 1238 lay in ruins. And who can have doubts as to whether there was a Mongolian Tatar yoke in Russia? From brief description it follows that there was a wonderful good neighborly relationship, isn't it? Southwest RussiaHer turn came in 1239. Pereyaslavl, Chernigov principality, Kiev, Volodymyr-Volynsky, Galich - everything is destroyed, not to mention the smaller towns and villages. And how far is the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke! How much horror and destruction his beginning brought. The Mongols went to Dalmatia and Croatia. Western Europe trembled. 
However, news from distant Mongolia forced the invaders to turn back. And they did not have enough strength for a second trip. Europe was saved. But our Motherland, lying in ruins, bleeding, did not know when the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke would come. Russia under the yokeWho suffered the most from the Mongol invasion? Peasants? Yes, the Mongols did not spare them. But they could hide in the woods. Townspeople? Of course. There were 74 cities in Russia, and 49 of them were destroyed by Batu, and 14 were never recovered. Craftsmen were turned into slaves and taken out. There was no continuity of skills in crafts, and the craft fell into decay. They have forgotten how to pour glass dishes, cook glass for the manufacture of windows, there are no more multicolored ceramics and jewelry with cloisonné enamel. Masons and carvers disappeared, and stone construction was suspended for 50 years. But the hardest of all was for those who, with weapons in their hands, repelled the attack - the feudal lords and warriors. Out of 12 Ryazan princes, three survived, out of 3 Rostov princes - one, out of 9 Suzdal princes - 4. And no one calculated the losses in the squads. And there were no less of them. Professionals in military service replaced by other people who are used to being pushed around. So the princes began to possess all the fullness of power. This process subsequently, when the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke comes, will deepen and lead to the unlimited power of the monarch. Russian princes and the Golden HordeAfter 1242, Russia fell under the complete political and economic oppression of the Horde. So that the prince could legally inherit his throne, he had to go with gifts to the "free king", as our princes of the khans called, to the capital of the Horde. I spent quite a long time there. The Khan slowly considered the lowest requests. The whole procedure turned into a chain of humiliations, and after long deliberations, sometimes for many months, the khan gave a "shortcut", that is, permission to reign. So, one of our princes, having arrived to Batu, called himself a slave in order to keep his possessions. 
The tribute to be paid by the principality was necessarily negotiated. At any moment, the khan could summon the prince to the Horde and even execute the unwanted in it. The Horde led a special policy with the princes, diligently fanning their feuds. The disunity of the princes and their principalities played into the hands of the Mongols. The Horde itself gradually became a colossus with feet of clay. In herself, centrifugal sentiments intensified. But this will be much later. And in the beginning, its unity is strong. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, his sons fiercely hate each other and fiercely fight for the Vladimir throne. Conventionally, the reign in Vladimir gave the prince seniority over all the others. In addition, a decent allotment of land was joined with those who bring money to the treasury. And for the great reign of Vladimir in the Horde, a struggle flared up between the princes, sometimes even to death. This is how Russia lived under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The troops of the Horde were practically not in it. But in case of disobedience, punitive troops could always come and begin to cut and burn everything. Rise of MoscowThe bloody feuds of the Russian princes among themselves led to the fact that the Mongolian troops came to Russia 15 times from 1275 to 1300. Many principalities emerged from the strife weakened, from which people fled to quieter places. The small Moscow principality turned out to be such a quiet principality. It went to the inheritance of the younger Daniel. He reigned from the age of 15 and led a cautious policy, trying not to quarrel with his neighbors, because he was too weak. And the Horde didn't pay close attention to him. Thus, an impetus was given to the development of trade and enrichment in this lot. 
Immigrants from troubled places poured into it. Daniel eventually managed to annex Kolomna and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, increasing his principality. After his death, his sons continued the relatively quiet policy of their father. Only the princes of Tver saw them as potential rivals and tried, fighting for the Great Reign in Vladimir, to spoil Moscow's relations with the Horde. This hatred reached the point that when the Moscow prince and the prince of Tver were simultaneously summoned to the Horde, Dmitry of Tverskoy stabbed Yuri of Moscow. For such arbitrariness, he was executed by the Horde. Ivan Kalita and "great silence"The fourth son of Prince Daniel, it seemed, had no chance of the Moscow throne. But his older brothers died, and he began to reign in Moscow. By the will of fate, he also became the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Under him and his sons, the Mongol raids on the Russian lands stopped. Moscow and the people in it grew richer. Cities grew, their population increased. A whole generation grew up in North-Eastern Russia, which stopped trembling at the mention of the Mongols. This brought the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia closer. Dmitry DonskoyBy the time of the birth of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich in 1350, Moscow is already turning into the center of the political, cultural and religious life of the northeast. The grandson of Ivan Kalita lived a short, 39 years old, but bright life. He spent it in battles, but now it is important to focus on the great battle with Mamai, which took place in 1380 on the Nepryadva River. By this time, Prince Dmitry defeated the punitive Mongol detachment between Ryazan and Kolomna. Mamai began to prepare a new campaign against Russia. Dmitry, having learned about this, in turn began to gather forces to repulse. Not all princes responded to his call. The prince had to turn to Sergius of Radonezh for help in order to gather the people's militia. And having received the blessing of the holy elder and two monks, at the end of the summer he gathered a militia and moved towards the huge army of Mamai. 
September 8 at dawn took place great battle... Dmitry fought in the forefront, was wounded, he was found with difficulty. But the Mongols were defeated and fled. Dmitry returned with a victory. But the time has not yet come when the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia will come. History says that another hundred years will pass under the yoke. Strengthening of RussiaMoscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands, but not all princes agreed to accept this fact. Dmitry's son, Vasily I, ruled for a long time, 36 years, and relatively calmly. He defended the Russian lands from the encroachments of the Lithuanians, annexed Suzdal and the Horde weakened, and less and less reckoned with it. Vasily visited the Horde only twice in his life. But there was no unity within Russia either. Riots flared up endlessly. Even at the wedding of Prince Vasily II, a scandal broke out. One of the guests was wearing Dmitry Donskoy's golden belt. When the bride found out about this, she publicly tore it off, inflicting an insult. But the belt was not just a jewel. He was a symbol of the great princely power. During the reign of Vasily II (1425-1453), feudal wars were fought. The Moscow prince was seized, blinded, wounded at the same time his entire face and all his subsequent life he wore a bandage on his face and received the nickname "Dark". However, this strong-willed prince was released, and the young Ivan became his co-ruler, who, after the death of his father, would become the liberator of the country and receive the nickname Great. End of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in RussiaIn 1462, the rightful ruler Ivan III came to the throne of Moscow, who would become a reformer and reformer. He carefully and prudently united the Russian lands. He annexed Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Perm, and even obstinate Novgorod recognized him as sovereign. He made the double-headed Byzantine eagle the coat of arms and began to build the Kremlin. This is how we know him. Since 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. A beautiful but untrue legend tells how it happened. Having received the Horde embassy, Grand Duke trampled the Basma and sent a warning to the Horde that the same would happen to them if they did not leave his country alone. The enraged Khan Akhmed, having collected a large army, moved to Moscow, wanting to punish her for disobedience. Approximately 150 km from Moscow near the Ugra River on the Kaluga lands in the fall, two troops stood opposite. The Russian was headed by Vasily's son, Ivan Molodoy. 
Ivan III returned to Moscow and began to carry out supplies for the army - food, fodder. So the troops stood opposite each other, until early winter came with a lack of food and buried all the plans of Ahmed. The Mongols turned around and went to the Horde, admitting defeat. This is how the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke took place bloodlessly. Its date - 1480 - a great event in our history. The meaning of the fall of the yokeHaving suspended the political, economic and cultural development of Russia for a long time, the yoke pushed the country to the margins of European history. When the Renaissance began and flourished in Western Europe in all areas, when the national self-consciousness of peoples was taking shape, when countries were getting rich and flourishing in trade, they sent a ship fleet in search of new lands, darkness stood in Russia. Columbus discovered America in 1492. For Europeans, the Earth grew rapidly. For us, the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia marked the opportunity to get out of the narrow medieval framework, change the laws, reform the army, build cities and develop new lands. In short, Russia gained independence and began to be called Russia.
o (Mongol-Tatar, Tatar-Mongol, Horde) - the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian lands by nomads who came from the East from the East from 1237 to 1480.
This system was intended to carry out mass terror and robbery of the Russian people by levying cruel extortions. She acted primarily in the interests of the Mongol nomadic military-feudal nobility (noyons), who received the lion's share of the collected tribute.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke was established as a result of the invasion of Khan Batu in the 13th century. Until the early 1260s, Russia was ruled by the great Mongol khans, and then by the khans of the Golden Horde. The Russian principalities were not directly part of the Mongolian state and retained the local princely administration, whose activities were controlled by the Baskaks - representatives of the khan in the conquered lands. Russian princes were tributaries of the Mongol khans and received from them labels for the possession of their principalities. Formally, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was established in 1243, when Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich received a label from the Mongols for the Vladimir Grand Duchy. Russia, according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to pay tribute to the khans regularly twice (in spring and autumn). There was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army on the territory of Russia. The yoke was supported by punitive campaigns and repressions against the rebellious princes. The regular flow of tribute from the Russian lands began after the census of 1257-1259, carried out by the Mongolian "censors". The units of taxation were: in cities - a yard, in rural areas - "village", "plow", "plow". Only the clergy were exempted from tribute. The main "Horde burdens" were: "exit", or "tsar's tribute" - a tax directly for Mongol Khan; trade fees ("myt", "tamka"); transportation duties ("yam", "carts"); the maintenance of the khan's ambassadors ("feed"); various "gifts" and "honors" to the khan, his relatives and associates. Annually from the Russian lands left in the form of tribute great amount silver. Large "requests" for military and other needs were periodically collected. In addition, the Russian princes were obliged, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in round-up hunts ("catchers"). In the late 1250s and early 1260s, Muslim merchants ("bessermens") collected tribute from the Russian principalities, who bought this right from the great Mongol khan. Most of tribute went to the great khan in Mongolia. During the uprisings of 1262, the "besermen" were expelled from Russian cities, and the duty of collecting tribute passed to the local princes.
The struggle of Rus against the yoke acquired ever greater breadth. In 1285, Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich (son of Alexander Nevsky) defeated and expelled the army of the "Horde Tsarevich". At the end of the XIII - the first quarter of the XIV century, performances in Russian cities led to the elimination of Basque people. With the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the Tatar yoke is gradually weakening. The Moscow prince Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) achieved the right to collect "output" from all Russian principalities. From the middle of the XIV century, the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by a real military threat, were no longer carried out by the Russian princes. Dmitry Donskoy (1359 1389) did not recognize the khan's labels issued to his rivals, and seized the Vladimir Grand Duchy by force. In 1378 he defeated Tatar army on the Vozha River in the Ryazan land, and in 1380 he defeated the Golden Horde ruler Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo.
However, after the campaign of Tokhtamysh and the capture of Moscow in 1382, Russia was forced to again recognize the power of the Golden Horde and pay tribute, but already Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) received the Vladimir great reign without the khan's label, as "his fiefdom." Under him, the yoke was nominal. Tribute was paid irregularly, the Russian princes pursued an independent policy. The attempt of the Golden Horde ruler Edigei (1408) to restore full power over Russia ended in failure: he failed to take Moscow. The strife that began in the Golden Horde opened up for Russia the possibility of overthrowing the Tatar yoke.
However, in the middle of the 15th century, Moscow Russia itself experienced a period of internecine war, which weakened its military potential. During these years, the Tatar rulers organized a series of devastating incursions, but they could no longer lead the Russians to complete submission. The unification of the Russian lands around Moscow led to the concentration in the hands of the Moscow princes of such political power, which the weakening Tatar khans could not cope with. Great Moscow Prince Ivan III Vasilievich(1462-1505) in 1476 refused to pay tribute. In 1480 after unsuccessful campaign Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and "standing on the Ugra" yoke was finally overthrown.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke had negative, regressive consequences for the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, it was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Russia, which were at a higher socio-economic level in comparison with the productive forces of the Mongolian state. It artificially preserved the purely feudal natural character of the economy for a long time. In political terms, the consequences of the yoke were manifested in the violation of the natural process of the state development of Russia, in the artificial maintenance of its fragmentation. The Mongol-Tatar yoke, which lasted two and a half centuries, was one of the reasons for the economic, political and cultural lagging behind Russia from Western European countries.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources.
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Golden Horde(also Ulus Jochi- The country of Jochi, or Turk. Ulu Ulus- Great Country, Great State) is a medieval multinational state on the lands of central Eurasia, which united many different tribes, peoples and countries.
In 1224-1266 it was part of the Mongol Empire.
By the middle of the 15th century Golden Horde split into several independent khanates; its central part, which nominally continued to be considered the supreme - the Big Horde, ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.
Title and boundaries
Name "Golden Horde" it was first used in 1566 in the historical and publicistic essay "Kazan History", when the unified state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources the word “ Horde"Was used without the adjective" Gold". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to denote the Jochi ulus as a whole or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.
In the actual Golden Horde and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It was usually denoted by the term " ulus", With the addition of any epithet ( "Ulug ulus") or the name of the ruler ( "Ulus Berke"), and not necessarily acting, but also reigning earlier (" Uzbek, ruler of the countries of Berke», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, the sovereign of the land of Uzbek"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak... Word " horde"In the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of" country "begin to be found only from the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde"(Pers. اردوی زرین, Urdu-i Zarrin) in the meaning" golden parade tent"Occurs in the description of the Arab traveler in relation to the residence of the Khan Uzbek.
In Russian chronicles, the word "horde" usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country has become constant since the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, until that time the term "Tatars" was used as a name. In Western European sources, the names “ Comanov country», « The company" or " Tatar state», « land of the Tatars», « Tartary". The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(Tar-tar).
V modern languages, which are related to the Old Tatar Horde, the Golden Horde is called: Olug yurt / yort (Big House, Motherland), Olug ulus / olys (Big country / district, senior district), Dashti Kypchak (Steppe of the Kipchaks), etc. capital city called Bash kala ( Main city), then the mobile headquarters is called Altyn urda (Golden Center, tent, village).
The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the XIV century, defined the boundaries of the Horde as follows:
History
Batu Khan, medieval Chinese drawing
Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)
After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country associated with the name of Temnik Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants of Genghis Khan, held the post of beklarbek, the second most important in the state under Mengu-Timur. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde (near the Danube). Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state, and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Tula-Buga (1287-1291) he managed to subjugate a huge territory along the Danube, Dniester, Uzeu (Dnieper).
With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was planted on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was restored again.
Rise of the Golden Horde
Fragments of the tiled decor of the Chingizid palace. Golden Horde, Saray-Batu. Ceramics, overglaze painting, mosaic, gilding. Selitrennoe settlement. Excavations of the 1980s. Gim
"Great Zamyatnya"
From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans were replaced on the Golden Horde throne, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources received the name "Great Zamyatnya".
Even during the life of Khan Janibek (no later than 1357), his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed in the Ulus of Shiban. And the assassination of Khan Berdibek (the son of Janibek) in 1359 put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the appearance of various applicants for the Sarai throne from among the representatives of the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time after the Ulus of Shibana found their own khans.
The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklyarbek of the murdered khan, Temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was Isatay's grandson, an influential emir of the times of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, right up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Chingizid, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the post of beklarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.
Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the benevolence of the merchant elite of the Volga cities, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.
Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also Isatai's grandson, tried to create an independent ulus in the Syrdarya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Bugi in 1360 and who killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from their midst.
Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Janibek, captured Khadzhi-Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized the lands in the Dnieper basin.
The turmoil in the Golden Horde ended after Chingizid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannahr in 1377-1380, first seized the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Sarai, when Mamai entered into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozh (1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops on the Kalka River collected by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo.
Tokhtamysh Board
During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the troubles ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the khan made a campaign against Moscow and succeeded in restoring the payment of tribute. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns in 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated Tokhtamysh's troops on the Terek, captured and destroyed Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea and others. The Golden Horde suffered a blow from which it could no longer recover.
The collapse of the Golden Horde
Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Hush, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. A gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus Orda-Ejena gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the devastation of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.
In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Kichi-Muhammad Khan, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.
The Big Horde formally continued to be considered the main among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt failed, and Russia finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed in an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Big Horde ceased to exist.
State structure and administrative division
According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, Ulus Jochi after 1242 split into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The eldest was the right wing, which was the Ulus Batu. The Mongols indicated the west in white, so Ulus Batu was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, North Caucasus, Don and Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Saray-Batu.
The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses, which were owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who traveled east in 1246-1247, singles out the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the nomadic places: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mauci on the east, Cartan, married to his sister Batu, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousanders on the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.
At first, the ulus division was notable for its instability: possessions could be transferred to others and change their borders. At the beginning of the XIV century, Uzbek Khan carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of Ulus Jochi was divided into 4 large ulus: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Desht-i-Kypchak, headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. Beklarbek was the main ulusbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The other two positions were held by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small estates (tumens), headed by temniks.
Uluses were divided into smaller holdings, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion's manager, foreman).
The capital of the Golden Horde under Batu was the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan); in the first half of the XIV century, the capital was moved to Saray-Berk (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near present-day Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Saray-Berk was renamed into Saray Al-Jedid.
Army
The overwhelming part of the Horde army was the cavalry, who used the traditional tactics of waging combat with mobile mounted masses of archers in battle. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was a complex bow of the eastern type, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear blow that followed the first blow with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Shock-crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, six-pins, embossings, hammers, flails.
Among the Horde warriors, lamellar and laminar metal shells were widespread, from the XIV century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was the khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used armor of the brigantine type. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and leggings became widespread. Swords were almost everywhere replaced by sabers. From the end of the XIV century, guns appear in service. The Horde soldiers also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chapars... In field combat, they also used some military-technical means, in particular, crossbows.
Population
Ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.
Cities and commerce
On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers have been archaeologically recorded with material culture oriental appearance, which flourished in the first half of the XIV century. The total number of the Golden Horde cities, apparently, was close to 150. The major centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Saray-Batu, Saray-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Djuketau, Madjar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench and others.
The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captaincy of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde for the trade in cloth, fabrics and linen canvas, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , forest, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.
Trade routes leading to both southern Europe and Central Asia, India and China began from the Crimean trading cities. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran passed along the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk passage there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Azov and Black seas.
Foreign and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper pools and soums.
Rulers
In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great Kaan of the Mongol Empire.
Khans
- Mengu-Timur (1269-1282), first khan of the Golden Horde, independent from the Mongol Empire
- There Mengu (1282-1287)
- Tula Buga (1287-1291)
- Tokhta (1291-1312)
- Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
- Tinibek (1341-1342)
- Janibek (1342-1357)
- Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
- Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360), impostor, posing as Janibek's son
- Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360), impostor, posing as the son of Janibek
- Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
- Timur-Khoja-khan (August-September 1361)
- Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
- Kildibek (October 1361 - September 1362), impostor, posing as Janibek's son
- Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
- Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
- Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
- Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
- Hasan Khan (1368-1369)
- Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
- Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
- Urus Khan (1372-1374)
- Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
- Muhammad Bulak Khan (early 1375-June 1375)
- Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
- Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-end 1375)
- Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
- Arabshah (Kary-khan) (1377-1380)
- Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
- Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
- Shadibek (1399-1407)
- Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
- Timur Khan (1411-1412)
- Jalal ad-Din-khan (1412-1413)
- Kerimberds (1413-1414)
- Chokra (1414-1416)
- Jabbar Birdie (1416-1417)
- Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
- Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
- Barak Khan (1423-1426)
- Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
- Barak Khan (1427-1428)
- Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
- Kichi-Muhammad (1432-1459)
Beklarbeki
see also
Notes (edit)
- Zahler, Diane. The Black Death (Revised Edition) (unspecified). - Twenty-First Century Books (English)Russian, 2013. - S. 70. - ISBN 978-1-4677-0375-8.
- V.D. Dimitriev, S.A. Krasnov. Bulgarian land // Electronic Chuvash encyclopedia... - Date of treatment: 01/25/2020.
- Gabdelganeeva G.G. The history of the Tatar book: from the origins to 1917 - Directmedia, 2015 .-- P. 29 .-- 236 p. - ISBN 9785447536473.
- Golden Horde. - Pavlodar State University named after S. Toraigyrov, 2007 .-- P. 56 .-- 247 p. - ISBN 9789965081316.
- DOCUMENTS-> GOLDEN HORDE-> LETTERS OF GOLDEN HORDE KHANS (1393-1477) -> TEXT
- A.P. Grigoriev The official language of the Golden Horde of the XIII-XIV centuries // Turkological collection 1977. M, 1981. P.81-89. "
- Tatar Encyclopedic Dictionary. - Kazan: Institute of the Tatar Encyclopedia of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan, 1999. - 703 p., Ill. ISBN 0-9530650-3-0
- Faseev F.S.Star Tatar business writing of the 18th century. / F.S. Faseev. - Kazan: Tat. book ed., 1982 .-- 171 p.
- Khisamova F.M.Functioning of the Old Tatar business writing of the 16th-17th centuries. / F. M. Khisamova. - Kazan: Kazan Publishing House. University, 1990 .-- 154 p.
- Written Languages of the World, Books 1-2 G. D McConnell, V. Yu. Mikhalchenko Academy, 2000 Pp. 452
- III International Baudouin Readings: I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and contemporary problems theoretical and applied linguistics: (Kazan, May 23-25, 2006): works and materials, Volume 2 pp. 88 and p. 91
- Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages Nikolay Alexandrovich Baskakov Vyssh. school, 1969
- Tatar Encyclopedia: K-L Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov, Mansur Khasanovich Khasanov Institute of the Tatar Encyclopedia, 2006 pp. 348
- History of the Tatar literary language: XIII-first quarter of XX century Institute of Language, Literature and Art (IYALI) named after Galimdzhan Ibragimov of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan publishing house Fiker, 2003
- http://www.mtss.ru/?page=lang_orda E. Tenishev The language of interethnic communication of the Golden Horde era
- Atlas of the history of Tatarstan and the Tatar people M .: Publishing house DIK, 1999. - 64 p .: ill., Maps. ed. R. G. Fakhrutdinova
- Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries.
- Rakushin A.I. Mongolian tribes of Ulus Jochi // Mongols on the Volga / L. F. Nedashkovsky. - Saratov: Techno-Decor. - S. 10-29. - 96 p.
- Golden Horde Archived October 23, 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- Pochekaev R. Yu. Legal status of Ulus Jochi in the Mongol Empire 1224-1269 (unspecified)
(unavailable link)... - Library of the "Central Asian Historical Server". Retrieved April 17, 2010. Archived August 8, 2011.
- Cm.: Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M.: Science, 1985.
- Sultanov T.I. How Jochi ulus became the Golden Horde.
- Meng-da bey-lu ( Full description Mongol-Tatars) Per. with whale, int., comment. and adj. N. Ts. Munkueva. M., 1975, p. 48, 123-124.
- V. Tiesenhausen. Collection of materials related to the history of the Horde (p. 215), Arabic text (p. 236), Russian translation (B. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky. Golden Horde, p. 44).
Where did the term "Tatars" come from? The first answers gave good answers. But here we should remember further development Golden Horde. It was also a huge empire that stretched in the west from the Crimea, and the southeastern territories of Ukraine to the Caucasus and Central Asia in the south, and Western Siberia in the East. The question is: how could it exist at all and not fall apart right away? And because there were unifying factors peculiar to Ulus Jochi (the rest of the former territories of the Mongol Empire also had their own):
Throughout the entire territory of the Golden Horde, Turkic peoples lived. Nomadic, or recently former. The differences in language were not critical for the majority; so they were mostly mutually intelligible. As the language of communication and the official language, the Old Turkic language, or the Turks, was used, in different versions. Which, at the very least, could be understood by the Polovtsians (the main ancestors of the Crimean Tatars); and the ancestors of the Uzbeks; and Bulgars from the Volga region; and those Turks who settled in the Caucasus, etc.
Yes, as among the nomads, for a huge part of the population, there were no fundamental contradictions, as such, with the Mongols. They fit perfectly into the Mongolian war machine. Mongols were originally a minority. They quickly assimilated among the surrounding Turkic population.
Islam was soon adopted as the official religion. This strengthened the sympathy for the country who found themselves on the territory of Z.O. Muslim Turks from the Volga region and from Central Asia. Their culture and socio-economic structure were a kind of cementing factor. And they allowed many non-sedentary peoples to develop at the same time.
Both non-Turkic and non-Muslim peoples lived in the Jochi Ulus. Let's say, numerous Finno-Ugric, or those that lived in the North Caucasus. But it was the Turks who professed Islam (both nomadic and sedentary) in such an empire who were satisfied with almost everything; they eventually began to perceive it as "their" state, and to support and protect it. It was possible to create a certain commonality of them within the framework of such an empire.
For a Rusich of the 13th-15th centuries, meanwhile, there was no particular difference between the Mongols and the Turks. There were just those sinister eastern appearance, speaking in an incomprehensible language, who came on horseback to collect tribute, and periodically staged raids. He continued to call them the word under which the information on all the surrounding countries was initially terrified about the Mongols.
After the Golden Horde nevertheless disintegrated, for the Russian people the Turks on horses, professing Islam, with whom they had to fight as the next khanate was overcome, were all "Tatars". Moreover, both from the Crimea and from Western Siberia there really appeared horsemen who believed in Allah, speaking dialects indistinguishable for the Slavic ear. And then, as the country expands, and Russian Empire, the rule spread to almost all Turkic peoples. The novel wrote: "In general," Tatars "in Russian are roughly like" Germans "(those who do not speak an understandable language, that is," dumb ", unable to speak humanly), this is not the name of any particular people, but a general term for "alien", nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes from somewhere in the East. " - but after all, they called, for example, not nomadic Azerbaijanis at all - "Transcaucasian Tatars" as Tatars. (This is what the brain takes out while reading fiction XIX century, associated with the Caucasus). Karachais - "mountain Tatars", Nogai - "Nogai Tatars", Khakass - "Abakan Tatars", etc. In the story "The Enchanted Wanderer" by N. Leskov, the Tatars mean the Kazakhs. Even though few of them called themselves that, and the differences between, say, Karachais and Chulyms are huge.
Historically, several peoples nevertheless took the word as the official name of the ethnos: the Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, and Siberian Tatars. And then, it finally happened only in the XX century.
So initially, we can say that when the Mongols just invaded the territory of the Russian principalities, there were no Tatars either in the original (exterminated Mongol tribe) or in the subsequent sense among them. But when the state of Ulus Jochi, the Golden Horde, appeared, through which, first of all, the so-called yoke was carried out, the majority of the population very quickly became Tatars there.
I will supplement the previous excellent answer of Roman Khmelevsky with a remark to the second part of your question. The fact is that the term "yoke" is the traditional name for the system of relationships that developed between the Juchi ulus and the Russian principalities in the 13th-15th centuries. Moreover, the term itself has a relatively late origin and was first used by the Polish chronicler Jan Dlugosz in the 15th century. In Russia, the term "yoke" does not appear earlier than the middle of the 17th century, and the very expression "Mongol-Tatar yoke" was first used in 1817 by the German author Christian Kruse in his Atlas of European history". Thus, to designate the medieval state of nomad Mongols, the term" yoke "is inapplicable; questioned).
As for the term "Golden Horde", it is a little more complicated with it. Traditionally, this name is used in historiography to refer to public education nomad Mongols, which existed since the 30s. XIII approximately to the end of the XV century. The word "horde" is of Turkic origin (from ordu - fortified military camp) and at that time it meant the khan's headquarters, the seat of the commander-in-chief. It was first used by Ibn Battuta, an Arab traveler of the XIV century, as he called the golden tent of Khan Uzbek. It quickly took root, especially since it was quite appropriate in the context of the Mongol tradition to designate the main and secondary rates of the khans. So, after the conquest of the territories that entered the Jochi ulus (the inheritance of the eldest son of Genghis Khan, who was supposed to conquer him for himself), it was divided into several inheritances, which were headed by the grandchildren of Chinggis - the Batu part was called the White Horde, and part of his older brother - the Blue Horde (in the Mongolian tradition, the west was indicated by white, and the east by blue). But they themselves did not call their state, which had separated from the great khan by the middle of the 13th century, the Golden Horde - they simply called it "ulus", the state, adding different epithets to it (the word "ulug", great, or the name of an active or famous in the past khan). Nevertheless, the name "Golden Horde" seems to be correct, since has long been accepted in historical science. You can draw a parallel with Byzantium - this state itself was never called that (although this name was sometimes used by the Romans for the exalted naming of Constantinople), but in modern historiography this designation is most common for the Eastern Roman Empire, and even the very science about it is called Byzantinism.
I agree with the author above. With the Tatars among the Mongols, the topic is very muddy. But in short, this is the case:
There were Mongols, there were Tatars. There was a man named Yesigei, who at first simply fought with his gallant horsemen, then decided to unite all the territories north of China inhabited by nomads, whom the Chinese themselves called "black Mongols", while the "whites" were assimilated in the northern provinces. And within the black Mongols there was a distribution directly into the Mongols and those who are usually called Tatars. And so the brave Yesigey-baatur with his allies killed all enemies, including the Tatars, and for the first time in history united Mongolia. But the then Mongolian savages did not know the word "honor", and very soon Esigei, who slept with the Tatars on his way home, was poisoned. Then the hunt for his family began, but now the main thing for us is that a boy named Temujin survived, who saw how the Tatars cut everything he loved. Then he grew up, found those who remained loyal to his father and declared war on the Tatars, whom he considered guilty (rightly) of the death of his father. Everything was decided in one big battle, at night, when Temujin managed to defeat the united Tatar army and took many soldiers prisoner. You yourself understand that exact numbers it is better not to quote here, because everything will be a lie. So Temujin became Genghis Khan, and the Tatars were forcibly poured into the Mongol army.
What was I leading to? This led to the fact that the prisoners, according to Mongolian military traditions, always marched as infantry in the vanguard and perished very quickly, because death awaited them on both sides: both in front and behind the Mongols, if they decided to retreat. So we can safely say that before the campaign of Genghis Khan's grandson Batu to Russia and Europe, there were not many original Tatars in the army, and those who remained, with length of service and loyalty, achieved commanding ranks among the Mongols and finally assimilated among their conquerors.
There is a complex and confusing story. First, the "Tatars" in the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" are, in general, not at all the "Tatars" that are in present-day Kazan and Tatarstan, and this creates the first confusion. The Tatars in Tatarstan are more likely the descendants of the population of the Volga Bulgaria, partly of the Polovtsians, they have always lived there on the Volga, and have nothing to do with the Mongol tribes (although, of course, they have mixed in there, since then, a lot, as elsewhere). During the period of the Golden Horde (Ulus Dzhushi), these Tatars, like many other peoples, were part of it.
Those "Tatars" who are "Mongolo-Tatars" were a Mongol tribe, subordinated at one time by Genghis Khan (Temuchin), and, in the process of submission, practically destroyed and assimilated (there is a long story why this is so, they killed Temuchin's father and he took revenge ).
In general, "Tatars" in Russian is roughly the same as "Germans" (those who do not speak an understandable language, that is, "dumb", unable to speak humanly), this is not the name of a particular people, but a general term for "alien", nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes from somewhere in the East. 2. Even before Genghis Khan, Tatars were numerous and constituted tribal associations of Otuz Tatars (thirty Tatar tribes) Tokuz Tatars (nine Tatar tribes). This is written on the monument to Kul-Tegin, the Turkic commander. There is no evidence that Genghis Khan destroyed all 39 Tatar tribes.
3. Tatars were Türkic-speaking - on the Kul-Tegin monument they are described as Türks. Later, mixing with the Mongol-speaking peoples, they adopted their language.
4. Mongols of the Middle Ages are mainly Turks and they have nothing to do with modern Mongols (Khalkha). The fact that Genghis Khan was a Khalkha Mongol can be successfully refuted on the grounds that he spoke Tatar rather than Mongolian. This is evidenced by the story of the Flemish monk - Franciscan Guillaume de Rubruk, who once visited the headquarters of Khan Batu. Rubruk retells a widespread parable of that time. A certain Arab who came to the headquarters of Mengu Khan (one of the grandchildren of the Shaker of the Universe) began to describe his dream to him, saying that he had a dream about Genghis Khan, who demanded that Muslims in his possessions be executed everywhere.
And then Mengu Khan asked the Arab: "What language did my illustrious ancestor speak to you?" “In Arabic,” was the answer. "So you are all lying", - Mengu Khan was angry - My ancestor did not know any other language, except Tatar. "
And Rashid ad-Din also cites the same story almost one-on-one in his Collection of Chronicles.
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