(The boss has arrived)

The fact that the remains of Kievan Rus and the Golden Horde existed in a kind of symbiosis is the basis not only of the Eurasian theory (which emerged in the first third of the twentieth century), but also the worldview system of many Russian historians. Therefore, Gennady Alexandrovich Tyundeshev (Kharamoos), associate professor at the Institute of History and Law, Khakass State University named after N.F. Katanova, candidate of legal sciences, in his book only systematized these theories.

The state created by Khan Batu still exists, although the state language is now Russian (a mixture of Slavic and Turkic), about the language of the founder Russian Empire They recall the terms in the names of institutions of state power and law as: treasury, customs, law, money, Boyar Duma, Yamskaya service, punishment, guard, etc. Thanks to Khan Batu, warriors and shepherds of the steppes became residents of cities - officials, merchants, industrialists, artisans, land owners and farmers, builders of roads, caravanserais, hospitals and schools. In Russian, the following words remind us of this: book, pencil, teacher, scientist, hour, etc.

The Russian (Muscovite) proto-state was the same part of the Horde as the Crimean, Kazan, Astrakhan khanates, the Uzbek ulus, on the ruins of which arose Nogai Horde, Kazakh and Siberian on Tobol, Khiva Khanates. De jure, Russia finally got out of the control of the Horde only at the beginning of the 18th century, when Peter I stopped paying tribute to the Crimean Khanate (the most powerful fragment of the Horde until that time). Those. from that moment on, Russia becomes the sole successor to the Horde.

Russia began to pay tribute to the Sarai khans, for which it had a merchant fleet on the Volga, a religious residence in Sarai, and the exemption of the Russian Orthodox Church from all types of taxes. For its part, Russia had in the person of the metropolis, which was the Golden Horde for it, spiritual and military support in numerous wars with its northwestern neighbors, such as the Kingdom of Sweden and the German Teutonic Order, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Hungary. Galician Rus, Volhynia, Chernigov and other principalities that were outside the patronage of the Golden Horde. Thus, the choice of Prince Alexander Nevsky, the winner of the Swedes and Teutons, adopted son and the favorite of Batu Khan was apparently made on the basis of the theory of the least evil, in favor of symbiosis with the Golden Horde. And this choice was approved by the people and consecrated by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the canonization of Alexander Nevsky among the Orthodox saints is a clear confirmation of this.

This choice was also adhered to by other prominent figures of Russia of the Golden Horde era of subsequent generations, for example, the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita, which was duly appreciated by the Horde authorities, when, after the suppression of the anti-Horde uprising in Tver, for his active participation in this act, Kalita became the Grand Duke of All Russia at the will of the Golden Horde khan.

Present Russia was not formed on the basis of Kievan Rus, which disintegrated into eight sovereign states back in the 12th century, a century before the appearance of the "Mongols", not in rivalry with the Horde, with whom the Russians had no frictions on religious or cultural grounds, and at the same time there was a mutual interest in connection with the need to protect the western borders. Russia arose on a completely new Moscow soil, which was an organic part of the Golden Horde statehood; it grew out of the rivalry of Muscovy with the khanates, which were previously part of the Golden Horde, for the right to the legacy of the decaying great state.

The traditions of the Golden Horde took root in the life of Russia for a long time. Many laws and elements of the culture of the Golden Horde were so strong that they existed not only in the era of the German tsars of Russia, but also survived to this day.

Here is what the historian M.G. Khudyakov writes about this: “The state system introduced by the conquerors into defeated country, represented the height of deliberation and discipline in comparison with the patriarchal order that existed in Russia before the Tatars. The "Asian" heritage was a matter of pride, not condemnation. It was an organic element of Russian life: the Russian language and culture were simply saturated with Turkic borrowings.

Moscow as a center for the formation of Russian statehood, unlike Suzdal, Vladimir or Novgorod, emerged directly from the Golden Horde environment. And not so much thanks to the collection of taxes, but because she adopted many "Tatar" laws and political traditions.

The language of the Moscow bureaucracy was a certain meta-Turkic language - a transliterated tracing of Turkic-Tatar formulas and forms. Apparently, the Moscow bureaucratic papers followed a certain Horde format, right down to their artistic design.

The clerical language of the Golden Horde was Turkic, written first in Uyghur script, and then in Arabic script. Almost instantly, it became the language of interethnic communication on the territory of the entire Ulus of Jochi. Russian scribes were fluent in both the Turkic language and the Arabic script. This is confirmed by the numerous finds of Arabic script on documents and items of Russian everyday life of those years, made by Russian craftsmen, and even by the completely natural transition from Russian to Turkic in "Walking Beyond Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin. "

There was also a collegial body of people's representation in the Golden Horde - the so-called kurultai. It was attended by the sons of the khan, his closest relatives (princes), widows of khans, emirs, noyons, temniks, etc. The will of the khan, his decision at the kurultai were final and indisputable. Today its almost complete analogue is the State Duma.

The prince and historian N.S. Trubetskoy wrote in his writings that “the Russian tsar was the heir Mongol Khan... "Overthrow Tatar yoke"Came down to replacement Tatar khan the Orthodox tsar and the transfer of the khan's headquarters to Moscow. " The conclusion is unexpected from the point of view of the textbooks we are used to, but the events of subsequent Russian history directly indicate its validity.

We cite an excerpt from Tyundeshev's book "The Great Khan Batu - the founder of Russian statehood", in which he describes the elements of the Horde statehood, which not only survived to Putin's "vertical of power" and "sovereign statehood", but also became their basis.

“Since the reign of Udegei Khan, the Chinese influence on the system of government began, the substitution of Confucianism for law.

In the Türko-Mongolian state, “the type of society that existed in China and was supported in every possible way for centuries began to dominate, and corresponds to what Confucianism proposed. The social unit is a family with a hierarchical organization and almost absolute power of the head of the family. The community and the state itself must conform to this family model and avoid any significant interference in the wide range of affairs assigned to it. A resident of the community was supposed to strictly follow the rits corresponding to the status that a resident has in the community. The observance of the rits prescribed by custom replaced the obedience to the law in China.

In this static concept of society, the main principles were: filial love, submission to the highest in the hierarchy, the prohibition of any excesses and indignations. " In the Chinese concept, the law plays a secondary role, mostly repressive. “In the 7th century, Emperor Kang Shi openly declared:“ The number of litigations will increase unparalleled if people are not afraid to go to courts, hoping to find justice there easily ... Half of our subjects will not be enough to resolve the disputes of the other half. Therefore, I demand that those who apply to the courts be treated ruthlessly, so that they feel aversion to the law and shake with fear of the mere thought of being brought before a judge. "

Therefore, these historical factors exacerbated the enmity towards the law. In addition, there are other factors, “among them in the foreground is the bad (deliberately bad) organization of justice, which does not concern the authorities at all.

The official in charge of administering justice is very far from the litigants, since, as a general rule, he is invited to this post from another province and therefore does not know the local dialects and customs very well. His employees, who are directly dealt with by the litigants, are corrupt. They deliberately delay the process, because they feed on it. The treatment of litigants is humiliating, and the outcome of the trial is always questionable. “The winning process is the lost money,” says a popular proverb.

All this prompts the Chinese to bypass the courts and resolve disputes through out-of-court procedures. " In other words, for Chinese society, laws are not a normal means of resolving conflicts between people. “Laws, from the perspective of Confucianism, have no meaning for the improvement of society, the fewer the better, the appeal to justice is immoral, and all these postulates are firmly entrenched in the public consciousness”, from the Golden Horde (Russia) to the modern Russian Federation ...

“We highly value, for example, the Russian revolutionary democrats of the nineteenth century (Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, etc.), their critical judgments about the legal institutions of law tsarist Russia are fair. However, in the system of their views, law is not assigned any positive role, they do not see it as an important factor. social transformation, the formation of democratic institutions. Accordingly, the influence that these authors had on public consciousness (and this influence was significant) did not contribute to the understanding of the value of law, its prestige, the development of legal consciousness. "

This is where the fundamental difference between Russia and the West comes from, the most important of which is that the West tends to build life on legal framework, and Russia prefers to them an order based on moral principles, i.e. on Confucianism. Hence, the Russians to this day have a negative attitude towards the law among the people, expressed in the proverb: "the law, that drawbar, where you blow, it went there" and disbelief in justice, christened "Basmana justice".

The roots of this attitude to law go back to the Golden Horde (Russia). After the death of Genghis Khan, there was a departure from what he proposed - "a society built on the law" (Great Yasa). Instead, the legality was replaced by Confucianism, and in Russia it is well rooted and is still alive. The vitality of Confucianism inherent in the Golden Horde (Russia) and its adaptability in different historical periods was and is.

Here, as an example, let us point out Slavophilism, which took shape in the middle of the last century. Thus, “one of the active Slavophiles, I. Aksakov Jr., wrote:“ Look at the West. The peoples were carried away by vain motives, believed in the possibility of government perfection, made republics, set up constitutions - and became impoverished in soul, ready to collapse every minute. " All this does not suit Russia.

The poet of the last century had every reason to depict the position of the Slavophiles with the following lines: “Russian natures are wide. Our ideal of truth. It does not fit into the forms of narrow legal principles ”. It just so happened historically that Russian society and the state has long been distinguished by a deficit of law and legal awareness. The ideology of Slavophilism is both a reflection and a justification for this. The approaches characteristic of it are quite tenacious, and in one or another version they met more than once and later.

Another example is the views of L.N. Tolstoy. His contrasting formula “one must live not according to the law, but according to conscience” is not accidental. The dislike for law that distinguished Tolstoy the writer became even deeper in the later Tolstoy, a moralist who called law "a disgusting deception" and jurisprudence "chatter about law."

If in L. Tolstoy the opposition of spiritual principles and conscience to law and law is accompanied by a frank "destruction" of these latter, then the Russian philosophers of the early XX century (N. Berdyaev, P. Struve and others) do not have such open criticism, but the logic of reasoning leads to a very conclusions unattractive to the law.

Let us emphasize once again that such an attitude towards law in Russia still exists. This is one of the proofs that Batu Khan is the founder The Russian state... From the very first days of his reign by the Golden Horde (Russia), Batu Khan began to strengthen the state from within. New postal and caravan roads were opened and old ones were restored. The cities destroyed during the war were rebuilt. The administrative apparatus and its structure, with financial and tax systems, were formed quite quickly for such a vast state.

One of distinctive features a great nation is served by its ability to rise to its feet after a fall. No matter how hard his humiliation, but the time will strike, he will collect his lost moral strength and embody them in one great man or several great people, who will lead him onto the temporarily abandoned historical road.

V. Klyuchevsky

September 1980 Soviet people celebrated the 600th anniversary with great fanfare. Not a single magazine or newspaper remained aloof from this important event in Russian history. But, before starting a story about the events of the Kulikovo field, it is necessary to make several observations, because the battle of 1380 is the result of a large historical process that took place over several centuries.

If we take a general look at medieval history Eastern Europe, at first we will have to pay attention to the complex and contradictory relations and the struggle between two super-ethnic groups - the Turks and the Slavs.

First, after the breakup Great Bulgaria Kubrat Khan in the steppes of Eastern Europe there is only one state created by the Turks. This is the Khazar Kaganate. The struggle between the Khazar Kaganate and Kievan Rus ends with the victory of Prince Svyatoslav in 965.

Secondly, from the end of the 10th century (from 990), a desperate struggle began between Kievan Rus and the union of the Pechenegs who penetrated the steppes of Eastern Europe. But soon this struggle ends. The fact is that at the beginning of the 11th century, the Kypchaks, having separated from the Kimak Kaganate, headed west. They penetrate into the steppes, where the Pechenegs ruled. The struggle for a place in the sun begins. Strong and numerous Kypchak tribes are driving the Pechenegs out of the Eastern European steppes and forcing them to retreat to the west - to the Danube steppes.

Thirdly, the Kypchaks, who took the place of the Pechenegs, in turn begin a struggle with Kievan Rus (in 1061, Prince Vsevolod was defeated by the Kypchaks). The struggle continues for quite a long time, and only during the reign of a strong prince (he died in 1125) the activity of the Kypchak tribes somewhat subsides.

In the internecine struggle, Russian princes often attract the Kypchak tribes and deftly use them in their own interests. They marry their sons to the daughters of high-ranking Kypchaks - this is how family relations are struck and nepotism appears. Despite this, tense relations remain between the Kipchak Turks and the Russians. (For example, the campaigns of the Russian princes against the Kipchaks in 1168, 1182, 1184, 1202, 1205 speak just about this). Such an incessant struggle is explained by the fact that the steppe-Kypchaks make constant attacks and unexpected sorties on the Russian princes. Kypchaks live disorganized. They take the side of one or the other prince and participate in many conflicts.

If at this time the Russian princes are competing in order to occupy the "golden Kiev table", that is, to ascend the main throne in the glorious city of Kiev, then the idea of ​​unification, accumulation of forces and on this basis the organization of something like their own statehood does not arise among the Kipchaks. Therefore, the Kypchaks, who burst into the steppes of Eastern Europe with all their might in the middle of the 11th century, did not have a common idea that would serve as a unifying principle for them.

They fight with just anyone, serve just anyone, and each khan only cares about his own interests. And naturally, in such an environment, their initial powerful energy is wasted for nothing and without benefit for themselves. It must be said that during this period in the steppes of Eastern Europe, the Turkic massif greatly increased, and this circumstance will still play a positive role during the formation of the Golden Horde.

In 1223, the Mongol army burst into the steppes of Eastern Europe, and from that time on, the time of great trials and changes for the ethnic groups living here comes. In the first battle on the Kalka River, the united Russian-Kypchak army opposes the enemy. But the Mongols are winning the battle. According to the historian Rizaetdin Fakhretdin, “through the Derbent Pass to the Eastern European steppes, Jochi Khan (the son of Genghis Khan) broke through in order to enter into an alliance with the Kypchak Turks.

But due to the incitement of the Russian princes, the Kypchaks and the highlanders opposed the army of Jochi Khan (1223). It must be said that at the most crucial moment the Russian regiments left the battlefield, and for this reason the Kipchaks suffered defeat, and their tribal union collapsed "(Fakhretdin R. Khans of the Golden Horde. - Kazan, 1996. - pp. 75-76).

Indeed, this seems to be true, because the Mongols before the start of the battle, having sent a person to the Kypchaks, tried to persuade them not to fight, arguing that the Mongols and Kypchaks are blood brothers. This is reflected in the sources.

Returning from the Kalka battle, the Mongol army also entered the land located somewhat away from the steppe, but here it was defeated by the Bulgars; about four thousand people fled. And thirteen years later, a large Mongol army, having crossed the Yaik River, begins the conquest of the states of Eastern Europe.

So, in 1236 the Volga Bulgaria was conquered, in 1237 - Ryazan, Moscow and the Vladimir principality. Two years later, the city of Kiev, glorious for its gilded domes, is in the hands of the Mongols, then the Mongol army captures Galicia, Volhynia, Poland, Silesia, Moravia, Hungary, and in 1242 even reaches the walls of Vienna.

After the formidable campaigns in 1243 in the steppe Volga region, the Dzhuchiev ulus was formed, later called the Golden Horde.

Turks and Mongols

In the army that came from the east, along with the Mongolian element, the lion's share was made up of the Turks. Of course, the khans were of Mongolian origin, they were all Chingizids. But in the army, representatives of the Turkic tribes were in the majority, and this gives us the right to call the campaigns Mongol-Turkic. True, in Russian historical science, few people pay attention to this, the expression "Mongols" or "Tatar-Mongols" is accepted there.

But the truth is more precious. In addition, after the formation of the Golden Horde, the Mongols in the Turkic environment became Turkic after two generations. This is an established fact. So the campaigns, which gave the world new incentives that contributed to the mixing of blood, are not accidental. The activities of great commanders, such as Genghis Khan or Alexander the Great and others, would hardly have been possible without the sanction of heaven. There are clear indications about this in esoteric sources.

The formation of the Golden Horde rallies scattered ethnic groups living in the steppes within the framework of one state and sedentary peoples who have been arguing among themselves for many centuries. Objectively measured, this is undoubtedly a sign of progress. Of course, in wars a lot of blood is shed, spiritual and material values ​​are destroyed. But does not the creation of the new, the raising to a new stage of development occur through the rejection of the old, obsolete itself? This is the basic law of evolution.

Nicholas Roerich's book "The Power of Light" contains an interesting thought about this. He writes: “The great migrations of peoples are not an accident. There can be no accidents in the world's permanent phenomena. The most vital forces of the peoples are tempered by this feature. In contact with new neighbors, consciousness expands and forms of new races are forged. Therefore, live mobility is one of the signs of wisdom "(Roerich N.K. The Power of Light. - New York, 1931. - p. 155).

Development and regression of the Mongol horde

But another researcher, close in spirit to Roerich, writes about the nomads: “Nomads broke into the Eurasian expanses when the ancient civilizations of sedentary farmers were already dying. Like ocean shafts, they rolled across the Planet, carrying within themselves energy, which then fed countless generations of different peoples "(Shaposhnikova L.V. The Decisions of the Cosmos. - M., 1996. - P.43).

What is the meaning of the Mongol-Turkic campaigns? To answer this question, first of all, it is necessary to find out what this phenomenon gives to evolutionary development. Let's imagine the Eastern Europe of that time. What is the state of the Russian principalities at this time? I must say that at this time they are waging internecine wars among themselves - development has stopped, everyone is passionate about the struggle for power. And the Mongol-Turkic campaigns bring unprecedented movement and fresh winds into this musty world. Having become part of the Golden Horde, Russians get acquainted with the new state structure, new laws, a new military system, learn new methods of government, tax collection, and discover new ways of communication between parts of the state (yam). New trade routes are emerging, etc.

Aren't all these innovations a movement forward, a new round of progress? If so, then the great movement of peoples, great campaigns, as a result of which the Golden Horde was formed, must be considered as a consequence of the influence of external forces, because space is constantly working to advance humanity along the path of evolution, but it never interferes unnecessarily in the affairs of the earth, everything done by human hands. Therefore, people do not feel it, they think that it happened by itself.

We have already said that even before the Mongol-Turkic campaigns in the steppes of Eastern Europe, the mass of Kypchak tribes increased, that they became the main rivals of the Slavs in this region. And with the formation of the Golden Horde, these steppes generally turned into the Kypchak steppe, and it went down in history under the name Deshti Kypchak. Thus, the Kypchaks become the main ethnic group here, and the Mongols, as already mentioned, are assimilated. The Turks are turning not only into the ruling, but also the state-forming people. Of course, the Volga Bulgaria also did not stay away from this process. It can be considered that the “Tatarization” of the Bulgars began precisely during this period.

Finally, I came across a source that to some extent clarifies this question. In No. 7, 8 of the Miras (Heritage) magazine for 1996, Ibn al-Athir's work entitled "Perfection in the matter of compiling chronicles" was published. The source talks about the time of Berke Khan's reign, describes the arrival of ambassadors from Egypt and their reception in the khan's yurt. “Berke Khan sits on the throne, next to him is his elder wife, then 50-60 emirs are sitting on the benches. When the ambassadors entered the khan, Berke khan ordered the viziers to read out the letter ... The senior qadi, who was standing next to Berke khan, translated the letter and gave the list to the khan (what kind of list is unclear. - S.Sh.). The letter began to be read to the people of Berke Khan in Turkic. The Tatars were very happy about this ... "(Miras. - 1996. - № 7-8. - p. 189).

I must say that the last sentence contains very valuable information. This means that from the very beginning of the formation of the Golden Horde (the first khan of Batu died in 1255), the Türks-Tatars took an active part in the management of the state. Of course, we cannot say for sure how many people from those emirs who participated in the reception of the ambassadors were from the Türko-Tatars. However, attention is drawn to the fact that the letter that arrived with the ambassador was specially translated for the Türks-Tatars, which made them very happy. This fact suggests that the Chingizid khans of the Golden Horde also relied on the Türks-Tatars in governing the state, therefore, the transformation of the Turkic language into the official language of the state was a natural phenomenon.

Thus, the Turks who became part of the Golden Horde, living in a continuous Kypchak language environment, in socio-political, economic and cultural relations are drawn into a single center and create mutual language, culture and literature.

Being a living organism, a changing system, the Golden Horde also goes through different times. But this state reaches the greatest power and great authority in the world in (1312-1342). At this time, his political influence, a high standard of living, a well-functioning economy and a developed culture reach such a height that it becomes a role model for neighboring states. It was during this period that Islam became the official religion. Religious figures, famous scientists and writers rush to Sarai from various parts of the Muslim world.

The famous Muslim traveler Ibn Batutta, who passed through the lands of the Golden Horde in these years, notes the peace and prosperity in the state, the safety of roads, the presence of many caravanserais, khanaka, in which Sufis and dervishes live on the way. On the way, the traveler meets with a huge procession with hundreds of yurts, walking, filling half of the steppe. As it turns out later, it was a procession accompanying one of the wives of Uzbek Khan. Such luxury and breadth surprised him greatly.

However, precisely during the reign of Uzbek Khan, from the achieved prosperity, untold riches flowing to the center of the state, high authority and diplomatic successes, dizziness and tranquility, as it were, occur. People begin to live for their own pleasure, receiving only pleasure from life and not thinking about anything. Naturally, such behavior does not lead to good. It is known that if you think that you have achieved everything and have calmed down on this - know that you are gone. This means that development has stopped.

Uzbek Khan also granted many privileges to the Russian principalities subject to him. At one time, Rizaetdin Fakhretdin drew attention to this. Evaluating the activities of this khan, he simultaneously points out his mistakes. He writes: “Undoubtedly, Uzbek Khan was an outstanding ruler, under whom the Golden Horde reached an unprecedented heyday and power in politics. It consists in the fact that he, strengthening the Moscow principality and not realizing it, was gradually preparing a serious enemy against the Golden Horde. Uzbek Khan liquidated small principalities constantly at war with each other and gathered them together. For this reason, the Russians felt their strength ”(Fakhretdin R. Khans of the Golden Horde. - Kazan, 1996. - p. 95). Moreover, Uzbek Khan grants the Metropolitan of Russia Peter, the Orthodox religion, unlimited liberties, exempts the monastic lands from paying the annual tribute (yasak). According to the same R. Fakhretdin, the khan's label given in defense of the Orthodox religion included the following words: “If anyone revolts the Christian religion, say hurtful words against churches, monasteries and chapels, that person will be executed”.

Of course, every nation has every right to profess its religion, to adhere to its customs and everyday rules. In this regard, there was unlimited freedom of religion and tolerance in the Golden Horde, each religion had equal rights, was not oppressed in any way, which turned the state into one of the most advanced. Visiting guests and ambassadors paid attention to this feature. different countries... They were extremely surprised by such freedom in the choice of faith, which in their countries they could not even dream of. All this suggests that, apparently, there was no proper understanding in the Golden Horde that religion is one of the most powerful types of ideological weapons.

Let's turn to the Orthodox religion. If the khans saw in this religion a strong ideological weapon directed against the Muslim Tatars, if they understood that this religion contributes to the unification of the Russian people and at the same time is in the hands of the clergy a powerful means of inculcating hostility towards Muslims among the people, they would hardly provide it so many liberties. The Russian people perked up precisely thanks to their religious leaders, gradually grew stronger, believed in themselves and eventually turned into a force that opposed Sarai with arms in hand. So the Golden Horde, with its thoughtless policy, itself raised a strong enemy against itself.

Here is what is interesting: Uzbek Khan, having taken the throne, immediately begins a merciless struggle against the Mongols that still existed, and makes a lot of efforts to eradicate this religion in his state. For this reason, it is in conflict with the Mongols. But he grants broad rights to Orthodoxy, not thinking that such a policy in the future can create serious problems for the state.

Under Uzbek Khan and his son Janibek Khan, the Golden Horde still flourishes, but after the assassination of Birdebek Khan who ascended the throne (1359), internal turmoil and a struggle for power began in the state.

In 1360-1361, the state was divided into right and left wings. If the lands lying east of the Volga represent the left wing, the eastern ones enter the right wing. The Volga is the natural border of the two parts of the state. If on one side with the center in Sarai there is a constant change of khans, on the other side there is an energetic one who seeks to put his khan on the throne. This is how the country actually begins Civil War, which will last twenty years and turn into a factor destroying the state from within. The Moscow principality cleverly uses this instability to its advantage, and over the years it has become quite strong. If this "great jam" had not arisen in the Golden Horde, then the Russians in 1380 would not have thought of speaking on the Kulikovo field against the Tatars.

Internal turmoil in the Tatar state ends in a battle on the Kulikovo field. After that, which begins to strengthen the country, collecting the uluses into a single center.

However, it must be said that on the Kulikovo field the forces of the central government were not fighting against the united Russian army, but only, therefore we strongly reject the opinion that the forces of the Golden Horde were defeated on the Kulikovo field. In this battle, the Russians fought only with Mamai Murza, who himself fought against the central government centered in Sarai.

Two years after this battle, everything returns to normal. In 1382 Tokhtamysh Khan captured Moscow, and, having received the title of Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, as in previous years, began to pay the so-called “Horde exit” (ie yasak).

Edkhyam TENISHEV,
Chairman of the Russian Committee of Turkologists,
Corresponding Member RAS, Honored Scientist of the Republic of Tatarstan,
Honorary Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Bashkortostan.

The language of interethnic communication of the Golden Horde era

(Report at the round table of the Tatar community "Golden Horde: Historical Parallels", organized by the Fund for the Development of Muslim Peoples 02.01.2000)

Dear ladies and gentlemen, dear friends!

My speech is dedicated to the language, or rather languages, in the state of the Golden Horde. But at the beginning of the work of our round table an interesting discussion ensued, and I have to go beyond the limits of linguistics and, not being a historian, touch on the history of the Tatars.

First of all, I must say that in the introductory speech of the head of the round table Sh.F. Mukhammedyarov, the theme "Golden Horde" sounded like the main one - as the title of the round table "Golden Horde: historical parallels" obliged. In some speeches, it was only about the Bulgar state. There were no historical parallels. The history of the Bulgarian state is a special topic, and a separate seminar can be devoted to it, or round table... Now, in my opinion, no one denies the role of the Bulgar state in the history of the Tatars.

In the constructions of the Kazan historian Damir Iskhakov, for example, as it turns out from his two last publications, the place and role of the Bulgar state in the history of the Tatars of the Volga region is completely definite and obvious.

In the section "basic principles" related to the problems of creating the history of the Tatar people, D. M. Iskhakov formulates three approaches to the history of the Tatars. The third approach is important for us now: "the national history of the Tatars should be considered primarily in the general context of the general Turkic history, since the Tatars are part of the Turkic - Islamic-Turkic civilization."

Further, in the same book, the author indicates a specific chain of historical stages up to the modern Tatars: Türkic Kaganate (551-603) - Khazar Kaganate (90s of VI - 90s of X and up to until the XII century) - the Bulgar Kaganate (mid-VII - early XIII century) - Ulus Juchi (Golden Horde) (mid-XIII - early XIV century) - Kazan Khanate (1438-1552).

You, Shamil Fattyhovich, had similar thoughts and constructions earlier than the above point of view.

The significance of these stages in the history of the Tatars is unequal. It was especially great during the period of the Golden Horde - precisely on the territory of the Golden Horde in the XIV - early XV centuries. it is possible for the first time to "state the existence of a single Tatar ethnos." Naturally, the Golden Horde attracts attention in the first place.

What does this ancient term mean in a linguistic sense? The Tatar language uses the form Altyn Urda. The word altyn comes from the combination of the two words al and tyn. The first word al means scarlet, and the second - tyn is borrowed from Chinese tun ~ tun (copper). Thus, the original form of the word was altun ~ altun (scarlet, red copper), which turned into altyn (gold). Tatar Urda corresponds to Bashkir urza, but Turkmen, Kumyk, Kipchak horde, Turkish ordu, in the old Turkic languages ​​also - ordu.

The word horde ~ horde can be traced to the verb yell (to stand or camp). There are two possible ways of origin of a word from the specified verb:

a) yell ortu horde

b) yelling orta horde.

The meanings of the word are varied: "camp, camp"; "army"; "the sultan's tent"; "courtyard, residence of the ruler".

The question arises: why does the word Urda have the definition of altyn with it? Obviously, it carries an additional function that clarifies the meaning of the main word. This is possible only with the figurative use of the word altyn (golden). Here are some figurative meanings of this word.

1. Wonderful, beautiful, majestic.

This meaning is present in the title of the book of Buddhist content, which was among the ancient Uyghurs: altun onlug yaruk yartryklyk (shining with golden luster, that is, majestic, beautiful [book]). The Mongolian correspondence of the named term - altan gerel (golden light, shine) - also retains a figurative meaning for altan (wonderful, beautiful).

D. N. Ushakov's dictionary indicates several figurative meanings of the Russian word "golden":

2. happy, blissful, blooming, brilliant - the golden age (in Greek mythology - the century of the blissful life of primitive people), golden time, golden time;

3. beautiful, precious, wonderful in merit, very valuable - a golden worker, golden hands, golden guy, golden words, golden work;

4. dear, beloved beloved - my golden boy.

Of all the listed indirect meanings of the word altyn in the phrase Altyn Urda, the most appropriate is "majestic, beautiful, brilliant", i.e. in general, Altyn Urda should be understood as a "majestic (brilliant) state". It is curious that the concept and the term had to get into the Russian language from the Volga-Tatar language. But then in Russian it would have sounded: "Golden Urda", however, in fact, this term is pronounced as "Golden Horde". This means that it was not received from the Tatars. Then from whom and at what time? The question is, of course, addressed to historians.

The lands of the Golden Horde stretched from the Danube to the Irtysh. In the west, part of the Horde was called Ak Urda, in the east - Kok Urda. The adjectives "ak" and "kok" in this case did not mean color, but geographical position... Ak Urda played an important role in the history of a number of peoples, including the Turkic ones. It covered a huge territory - the Black Sea region, the Caspian region, the Volga region, Kazakhstan. Presumably, there were not very many Mongols - mainly the military, administrative, class hierarchy, some aristocratic families and estates. The main ethical component belonged to various Turkic peoples. The most prominent of them are the ancestors of the modern Volga, Crimean, Lithuanian-Polish-Belarusian Tatars, Nogais, Kazakhs and Uzbeks. The languages ​​of these peoples, despite, of course, historical differences, are completely identical with their modern languages... As for the number of the named Turkic peoples in the Golden Horde, it can be assumed that their proportions have been preserved in modern world... In other words, the Tatars, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Nogays had the largest number of the population. Hence, it can be assumed that a single state language There was no Turkic family in the Golden Horde, trade and administrative affairs were served in various parts of the Ulus Jochi in Tatar, Uzbek, Nogai and Kazakh languages, other needs and live communication went through more languages ​​and not only Turkic. In addition to living Turkic languages ​​with the main role of oral communication, in the Golden Horde there were also written and book languages ​​in which works of art- a whole literature that has received the name in science as "Khorezm-Turkic" or "Golden Horde" (there were other names less common in comparison with those mentioned above). It received the name "Khorezm-Turkic" by the name of literary centers (Khorezm and oases along the lower course of the Syr-Darya River), in which from the XII century. literature began to develop.

The language of the Golden Horde monuments is based on the prestigious language of the previous period of Turkic literature - the Karakhanid-Uighur language. The old Turkic literary languages ​​were created as a single chain. The relay race for the transmission of the written tradition began with the runic era. The language of the monuments of runic writing was mastered and formed the basis of the ancient Uigur language. The Old Uyghur language, in turn, formed the basis of the Karakhanid-Uyghur language. The latter was adapted in the works of the Khorezm cycle, where it was enriched with Oguz and Kipchak elements and turned into one of the medieval Turkic literary languages. The poems "Khosrov and Shirin" Qutba (1338), "Muhabbat-name" Khorezmi (1353), "Gulistan bi-t-Turks" by Satri Sarai (1391), prosaic theological and didactic composition "Nahj al Faradis "Mahmud al-Bulgari (1358).

Subsequently, these works as a spiritual heritage were assimilated and acted in the early period of literature among the Tatars, Nogais, Uzbeks and Kazakhs.

Several illustrations from the above works:

Ulyg Tenri-nintatyn yad kogldym, / With the name of the great Tengri on his lips
Muhabbat-name-ni bunyad kogladim, / I created muhabbat-name,
Iki yaktu gevkher alam-ga bergen, / He gave two light pearls to the world
Mukhabbet genzhini edam-ge bergen. / Endowed man with the treasure of love.

Mahbub-lair zulfi / Curls of the beloved
Akl ayagy-nyn zenzhiri, / Are the chain of the legs of the mind
Dagy zirek kush-lar-nyn / And also with a net
Tuzagy durur / Vigilant birds.

Senin ezgyy gadetleren bar, / You have a lot of good habits
Yak-yavukny severssen, / You love loved ones,
Yalgan sozlemessen, / You do not deceive,
Kishilairnen emgegani kutarrursen, teky / You suffer with people,
Konuklarny agyrlarssen, / You honor the guests,
Miskinlerge yara birursen. / You help the poor.

GOLD `I HORDE`(Altyn Urda) a state in northeastern Eurasia (1269-1502). In Tatar sources - Olug Ulus (Great Power) or Ulus Jochi named after the ancestor of the Jochi dynasty, in Arab - Desht-i-Kipchak, in Russian - Horde, the Kingdom of the Tatars, in Latin - Tartaria.

The Golden Horde was formed in 1207-1208 on the basis of the Jochi Ulus - the lands allocated by Genghis Khan to the son of Jochi in the Irtysh and Sayano-Altai. After the death of Jochi (1227), by the decision of the All-Mongol kurultais (1229 and 1235), Khan Batu (son of Jochi) was proclaimed the ruler of the ulus. During the Mongol wars, by 1243, the Ulus Jochi included the territories of Desht-i-Kipchak, Desht-i-Khazar, Volga Bulgaria, as well as Kiev, Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Galicia-Volyn principalities. By the middle of the XIII century, Hungary, Bulgaria, Serbia were dependent on the khans of the Golden Horde.

Batu divided the Golden Horde into Ak Orda and Kok Orda, which were divided into left and right wings. They were divided into uluses, tumens (10 thousand), thousands, hundreds and tens. The territory of the Golden Horde was connected by a single transport system - the Yam service, which consisted of pits (stations). Batu appointed the elder brother of the Horde-Ijen as the ruler of the Kok Horde, their other brothers and sons (Berke, Nogai, Tuka (Tukai) -Timur, Shiban) and representatives of the aristocracy received smaller holdings (estates - il) within these uluses as suyurgals. Ulus emirs (ulusbeks) were at the head of the uluses, and the smaller estates - tumenbashi, minbashi, yozbashi, unbashi - were at the head of the uluses. They carried out legal proceedings, organized tax collection, recruited and commanded troops.

At the end of the 1250s, the rulers achieved a certain independence from the great kagan of the Mongol Empire, which was reflected in the appearance of a tamga of the Jochi clan on the coins of Berke Khan. Khan Mengu-Timur managed to achieve complete independence, as evidenced by the minting of coins with the name of the khan and kurultai khans of the ulus of Juchi, Chagatai and Ogedei in 1269, which delimited their possessions and legalized the collapse of the Mongol Empire. At the end of the XIII century, 2 political centers: Beklyaribek Nogai ruled in the Northern Black Sea region, Khan Tokta ruled in the Volga region. The confrontation between these centers ended at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries with the victory of Tokty over Nogai. The supreme power in the Golden Horde belonged to the Jochids: until 1360, the descendants of Batu were the khans, then the Tuk-Timur (intermittently, until 1502) and the Shibanids in the territory of the Kok Horde and Central Asia... Since 1313, only Muslim Jochids could be the khans of the Golden Horde. Formally, the khans were autocratic monarchs, their name was mentioned in Friday and holiday prayers (khutba), they sealed the laws with their seal. The executive body of power was a sofa, which consisted of representatives of the highest noble four ruling clans - Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Kipchak. The head of the divan was a vizier - olug karachibek, he was in charge of the fiscal system in the country, was in charge of legal proceedings, internal and foreign policy affairs, was the commander-in-chief of the country's troops. At the kurultai (congress), the most important government issues representatives of 70 noble emirs.

The highest stratum of the aristocracy was made up of Karachibeks and Ulusbeks, the sons and closest relatives of the khan were oglans, sultans, and then emirs and beks; the military estate (knighthood) - the bakhadurs (batyrs) and the Cossacks. Local officials - Darugabeks - collected taxes. The main population consisted of a taxable estate - kara khalyk, who paid taxes to the state or feudal lord: yasak (main tax), different kinds land and income taxes, duties, as well as various duties, such as the supply of provisions to the troops and the authorities (barn are small), Yamskaya (ilchi-kunak). There was also a number of taxes on Muslims in favor of the clergy - gosher and zakat, as well as tribute and taxes on the conquered peoples and the non-Muslim population of the Golden Horde (Jizya).

The army of the Golden Horde consisted of personal detachments of the khan and the nobility, military formations and militias of various uluses and cities, as well as allied troops (up to 250 thousand people in total). The nobility was a cadre of military leaders and professional soldiers - heavily armed cavalrymen (up to 50 thousand people). Infantry played a supporting role in the battle. During the defense of the fortifications, firearms were used. The basis of battlefield tactics was the massive use of heavily armed cavalry. Her attacks alternated with horse archers, who struck the enemy from a distance. Strategic and operational maneuvers, envelopes, flank attacks and ambushes were used. The warriors were unpretentious, the army was distinguished by maneuverability, speed and could make long transitions without losing combat effectiveness.

Major battles:

• battle near the city of Pereyaslavl by Emir Nevryuya with Vladimir prince Andrey Yaroslavich (1252);
• the capture of the city of Sandomir by the troops of the Bahadur Burundai (1259);
• the battle of Berke on the Terek River with the troops of the Ilkhan ruler of Iran Hulagu (1263);
• Battle of Tokty on the Kukanlyk River with Nogai (1300);
• the capture of the city of Tabriz by the troops of Khan Janibek (1358);
• the siege of the town of Bolgar by the troops of Beklyaribek Mamai and the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy (1376);
• Battle of Kulikovo (1380);
• the capture of Moscow by Khan Toktamysh, Beklyaribek Idegey (1382, 1408);
• the battle of Khan Toktamysh with Timur on the Kondurcha River (1391);
• the battle of Khan Toktamysh with Timur on the Terek River (1395);
• the battle of Idegeya with Toktamysh and the Lithuanian prince Vitovt on the Vorskla River (1399);
• battle of Khan Ulug-Muhammad.

On the territory of the Golden Horde there were more than 30 large cities (including the Middle Volga region - Bolgar, Dzhuketau, Iski-Kazan, Kazan, Kashan, Mukhsha). Over 150 cities and towns were centers of administrative power, crafts, trade, and religious life. The cities were governed by emirs and khakims. The cities were centers of highly developed handicrafts (iron, arms, leather, woodworking), glassmaking, pottery, jewelry production and trade with the countries of Europe, the Near and Middle East flourished. The transit trade with Western Europe in silk and spices from China and India was developed. Bread, furs, leather goods, prisoners, cattle were exported from the Golden Horde. Imported luxury goods, expensive weapons, fabrics, spices. In many cities there were large trade and craft communities of Jews, Armenians (for example, the Armenian colony in Bolgar), Greeks and Italians. The Italian city-republics had their trading colonies in the Northern Black Sea region (Genoese in Cafe, Sudak, Venetian in Azak).

Until the 1st third of the 14th century, the capital of the Golden Horde was the Sarai al-Makhrus, built during the reign of Khan Batu. Inside the Golden Horde settlements, archaeologists have identified whole craft quarters. From the 1st third of the 14th century, Saray al-Jadid, built during the reign of Khan Uzbek, became the capital of the Golden Horde. The main occupation of the population was agriculture, gardening and cattle breeding, beekeeping, fishing. The population not only supplied themselves with food, but also exported it.

The main territory of the Golden Horde is the steppes. The steppe population continued to lead a semi-nomadic life, engaging in cattle breeding (sheep and horse breeding).

For the peoples of the Golden Horde, the official and spoken language was the Turkic language. Later, on its basis, a Turkic literary language was formed - the Volga Turks. It was used to create works of Old Tatar literature: “Kitabe Gulistan bit-Turks” by Saif Sarai, “Muhabbat-name” by Khorezmi, “Khosrov va Shirin” Qutba, “Nahj al-faradis” by Mahmud al-Sarai al-Bulgari. As literary language The Volga Turks functioned among the Tatars of Eastern Europe until the middle of the 19th century. Initially, office work and diplomatic correspondence in the Golden Horde were carried out in the Mongolian language, which was supplanted by the Turkic language in the 2nd half of the 14th century. Arabic (the language of religion, Muslim philosophy and jurisprudence) and Persian (the language of high poetry) languages ​​were also widespread in the cities.

Initially, the khans of the Golden Horde professed Tengrianism and Nestorianism, and there were also Muslims and Buddhists among the Turkic-Mongol aristocracy. Berke became the first khan to convert to Islam. Then the new religion began to actively spread among the urban population. By that time, the population in the Bulgar principalities had already professed Islam.

The adoption of Islam led to the consolidation of the aristocracy and the formation of a new ethnopolitical community - the Tatars, which united the Muslim nobility. She belonged to the Jochid clan-clan system, was united by the socially prestigious ethnonym “Tatars”. By the end of the XIV century, it spread widely among the population of the entire country. After the collapse of the Golden Horde (1st half of the 15th century), the term "Tatars" denoted the military-service Turkic-Muslim aristocracy.

Islam in the Golden Horde became the state religion in 1313. The head of the clergy could only be a person from the seyyid clan (descendants of the Prophet Muhammad from his daughter Fatima and Caliph Ali). The Muslim clergy consisted of muftis, muhtasibs, qadis, sheikhs, sheikh-masheikhs (sheikhs over sheikhs), mullahs, imams, and hafiz who performed divine services and legal proceedings in civil matters throughout the country. Schools (mektebs and madrasahs) were also under the jurisdiction of the clergy. In total, on the territory of the Golden Horde, more than 10 remains of mosques and minarets are known (including in the Bulgarian, Yelabuga settlements), as well as madrasahs, hospitals and khanaka (dwellings) with them. An important role in the spread of Islam in the Volga region was played by the Sufi tariqas (orders) (for example, Kubraviya, Yasaviya), which had their own mosques and khanaka. Public policy in the field of religion in the Golden Horde was built on the principle of religious tolerance. Numerous letters of the khans to the Russian patriarchs about the release of all types of taxes and taxes have been preserved. Relations with Armenian Christians, Catholics and Judaists were also built.

The Golden Horde was a country with a developed culture. Thanks to the ramified system of mektebs and madrasahs, the population of the country was taught to read and write and the canons of Islam. The madrasah had rich libraries and schools of calligraphers and book scribes. Objects with inscriptions and epitaphs testify to the literacy and culture of the population. There was an official historiography preserved in the writings of "Chingiz-name", "Jami at-tavarih" by Rashidaddin, in the genealogies of rulers and folklore tradition. High level reached the construction business and architecture, including white stone and brick construction, stone carving.

In 1243, the Horde army undertook a campaign against Galicia-Volyn principality, after which Prince Daniil Romanovich recognized himself as a vassal of Batu. Nogai's campaigns (1275, 1277, 1280, 1286, 1287) were aimed at imposing tribute and military indemnity on the Balkan countries and Poland. Nogai's campaign against Byzantium ended with the siege of Constantinople, the ruin of Bulgaria and its inclusion in the sphere of influence of the Golden Horde (1269). The war, which broke out in 1262 in the Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia, went on with interruptions until the 1390s. The heyday of the Golden Horde fell on the reign of the khans Uzbek and Janibek. Islam was declared the official religion (1313). During this period, on the crest of the economic boom, a unified system of governance of the empire, a huge army was formed, the borders were stabilized.

In the middle of the XIV century, after a 20-year internecine war ("The Great Hush"), natural disasters(drought, flooding of the Lower Volga region with the waters of the Caspian Sea), plague epidemics began the disintegration of a single state. In 1380 Toktamysh conquered the khan throne and defeated Mamai. Defeats of Toktamysh in the wars with Timur (1388–89, 1391, 1395) led to ruin. The reign of Idegei was marked by successes (the defeat of the troops of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt and Toktamysh on the Vorskla River in 1399, the campaign against Maverannahr in 1405, the siege of Moscow in 1408). After the death of Idegei in the battle with the sons of Toktamysh (1419), the united empire collapsed, and Tatar states arose on the territory of the Golden Horde: Siberian Khanate(1420), Crimean Khanate (1428), Kazan Khanate (1438). The last fragment of the Golden Horde in the Lower Volga region was the Big Horde, which disintegrated in 1502 as a result of the defeat of the descendants of Khan Akhmad by the troops of the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey.

The Golden Horde played a big role in the formation of the Tatar nation, as well as in the development of the Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Nogays, Uzbeks (Turks of Maverannahr). The Golden Horde traditions played a huge role in the formation of Muscovite Rus, especially in the organization of state power, the management system and military affairs.

Khans of Ulus Jochi and the Golden Horde:

• Jochi (1208-1227)
• Batu (1227-1256)
• Sartak (1256)
• Ulakchi (1256)
• Burke (1256-1266)
• Mengu-Timur (1266-1282)
• Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287)
• Tula-Buga (1287-1291)
• Tokta (1291-1313)
• Uzbek (1313-1342)
• Tinibek (1342)
• Janibek (1342-1357)
• Berdibek (1357-1339).

Khans of the "Great Hush" period.

At what stage of education do schoolchildren usually get acquainted with the concept of the "Golden Horde"? Grade 6, of course. The history teacher tells the children how the Orthodox people suffered from foreign invaders. One gets the impression that in the thirteenth century Russia experienced the same brutal occupation as in the forties of the last century. But is it really worth it to blindly draw parallels between the Third Reich and the medieval semi-nomadic state? And what did the Tatar-Mongol yoke mean for the Slavs? What was the Golden Horde for them? "History" (grade 6, textbook) is not the only source on this topic. There are other, more fundamental works of researchers. Let's take an adult look at a rather long time period in the history of our native land.

The beginning of the Golden Horde

Europe first met Mongol nomadic tribes in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. The troops of Genghis Khan reached the Adriatic and could successfully advance further - to Italy and to But the dream of the great conqueror came true - the Mongols were able to scoop up water from the Western Sea with a helmet. Therefore, the army of many thousands returned to their steppes. For another twenty years, the Mongol Empire and feudal Europe existed without colliding in any way, as if in parallel worlds. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided his kingdom between his sons. This is how the Ulus (province) of Jochi appeared - the westernmost in the empire. If we ask ourselves what the Golden Horde is, then 1236 can be considered the starting point of this state formation. It was then that the ambitious Khan Batu (son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan) began his Western campaign.

What is the Golden Horde

This military operation, which lasted from 1236 to 1242, significantly expanded the territory of the Jochi ulus to the west. However, it was too early to talk about the Golden Horde at that time. Ulus is an administrative unit in the great and it was dependent on the central government. However, Khan Batu (in the Russian chronicles Batu) in 1254 moved his capital to the Lower Volga region. There he made the capital. Khan founded the large city of Saray-Batu (now a place near the village of Selitrennoe in the Astrakhan region). In 1251, a kurultai took place, where Mongke was elected emperor. Batu arrived in the capital Karakorum and supported the heir to the throne. Other applicants were executed. Their lands were divided between Mongke and Chingizids (including Batu). The term "Golden Horde" itself appeared much later - in 1566, in the book "Kazan History", when this state itself had already ceased to exist. The self-name of this territorial entity was “Ulu Ulus”, which means “Grand Duchy” in translation from Turkic.

Years of the Golden Horde

Demonstration of loyalty to Khan Mongke served Batu a good service. His ulus received great autonomy. But the state acquired full independence only after the death of Batu (1255), already during the reign of Khan Mengu-Timur, in 1266. But even then, nominal dependence on the Mongol Empire remained. This overgrown ulus included Volga Bulgaria, North Khorezm, Western Siberia, Desht-i-Kipchak (steppes from the Irtysh to the Danube), North Caucasus and Crimea. By area public education can be compared with the Roman Empire. Its southern edge was Derbent, and its northeastern border was Isker and Tyumen in Siberia. In 1257, a brother ascended the throne of the ulus (ruled until 1266). He converted to Islam, but most likely for political reasons. Islam did not affect the broad masses of the Mongols, but it made it possible for the khan to attract Arab artisans and traders from Central Asia and the Volga Bulgars to his side.

The Golden Horde reached its peak in the 14th century, when Uzbek Khan (1313-1342) ascended the throne. Under him, Islam became the state religion. After the death of Uzbek, the state began to experience an era of feudal fragmentation. The campaign of Tamerlane (1395) drove the last nail into the lid of the coffin of this great, but short-lived power.

End of the Golden Horde

In the 15th century, the state collapsed. Small independent principalities appeared: the Nogai Horde (early years of the 15th century), Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Uzbek, the Central government remained and continued to be considered supreme. But the days of the Golden Horde are over. The power of the successor became more and more nominal. This state was called the Big Horde. It was located in the Northern Black Sea region and extended to the Lower Volga region. The Great Horde ceased to exist only at the beginning of the sixteenth century, being absorbed

Rus and Ulus Jochi

Slavic lands were not part of the Mongol Empire. What is the Golden Horde, the Russians could judge only by the extreme western ulus of Jochi. The rest of the empire and its metropolitan splendor remained out of sight of the Slavic princes. Their relations with the Jochi ulus in certain periods were of a different nature - from partnership to openly slavish. But in most cases it was a typically feudal relationship between a feudal lord and a vassal. Russian princes came to the capital of the Jochi ulus, the city of Sarai, and brought homage to the khan, receiving from him a "label" - the right to govern their state. He was the first to do this in 1243. Therefore, the most influential and the first in subordination was the shortcut to the Vladimir-Suzdal reign. From this during Tatar-Mongol yoke and the center of all Russian lands shifted. It was the city of Vladimir.

"Terrible" Tatar-Mongol yoke

The history textbook for the sixth grade depicts the misfortunes that the Russian people endured under the invaders. However, not everything was so sad. The princes first used the Mongol troops in the fight against their enemies (or pretenders to the throne). Such military support had to be paid for. Then, in the days of the princes, they had to give part of their income from taxes to the khan of the ulus Jochi - their liege. This was called the "Horde exit". If the payment was delayed, the bakauls arrived and collected the taxes themselves. But at the same time, the Slavic princes ruled over the people, and his life went on as before.

Peoples of the Mongol Empire

If we ask ourselves the question of what the Golden Horde is from the point of view of the state system, then there is no single answer. At first, it was a semi-military and semi-nomadic alliance of Mongol tribes. Very quickly - within one or two generations - impact force the troops of the conquerors assimilated among the conquered population. Already at the beginning of the XIV century, the Russians called the Horde "Tatars". The ethnographic composition of this empire was very diverse. Alans, Uzbeks, Kipchaks and other nomadic or sedentary peoples permanently lived here. Khans in every possible way encouraged the development of trade, crafts and the construction of cities. There was no discrimination based on nationality or religion. In the capital of the ulus - Sarai - in 1261 an Orthodox bishopric was even formed, the Russian diaspora was so numerous here.